Programme as pdf-file
Foreword
This Statement of Principles was adopted at the National Party Congress (June 28-July 1, 2001).
Preparing a new statement of principles is an immense, vital and exciting part of the democratic process within a political party. A program committee appointed by the party's Board of Directors worked throughout 2000 to prepare a proposal, which was then sent to the nearly 300 local party sections, as well as to its affiliated associations. After that the Board discussed the entire Statement together with the responses received. This step completed, the amended Statement was sent to the Congress delegates, who were invited to submit written motions for changes. These motions were then processed by an editing committee after which the committee's changes, the submitted motions and the Board's proposal for a new Statement of Principles were considered by the National Party Congress.
The adopted Statement of Principles will be a valuable tool for the Christian Democratic Party's political work in Sweden, as well as within the Nordic co-operation, in the EPP (European People's Party) and in the CDI (Christian Democratic International).
Stockholm, August 8, 2001
Sven Gunnar Persson
Secretary General
CHRISTIAN DEMOCRACY is a democratic movement founded on a Christian perspective on human beings and on basic Christian values. With Christian values, we mean those generally accepted values that have been inspired and nurtured by the Christian tradition.
Our perspective on human beings is derived from the understanding that human beings are naturally rational, granting freedom and the capacity for choosing between good and evil. Human beings are morally aware and are in control of their own actions, making them morally responsible. The value provides rights, while the responsibility assigns duties.
The human being is a goal in itself. S/he may not be owned by another human nor be used by another in an offensive manner. This view of human beings is usually described by stating that a human being is a person, meaning that each human being is a unique, irreplaceable individual who owns the same absolute, inviolate value regardless of sex, age, social position, ethnic backgrounds, religious conviction and sexual orientation. Human value is tied to existence, not to various stages or situations in a single human life cycle nor to that person's talents or characteristics. This way of looking at human beings provides a solid base for working on equality. The fact that human beings are sometimes not able to act rationally because of different stages of life or some injury does not annul his or her rational nature.
In other words, each individual is a unique person simply by existing and as a person, s/he is born into a context of other persons with mutual dependence. Human beings have physical, mental and spiritual needs. This holistic picture of human beings is the point of departure for Christian Democratic politics. It's called personalism and from its base we want to safeguard the lives, freedom and dignity of all human beings. We stand in solidarity with the weak and oppressed. We want to exercise a responsible stewardship over animals, plants and the resources of our globe. We want to build democracy from this perspective on human beings and from this set of basic values.
As a way of making decisions, democracy does not in itself guarantee that human value, freedom and rights are respected. Though democracy as a form of government carries with it the freedom of speech and the right of all citizens to have the same possibility for influence, majority decisions can be used to oppress a minority and to violate its freedom and basic rights. This is why there is a need for a shared set of basic values. We believe that those values, rights and duties inspired and passed on by the Christian traditions are indispensable as a base.
Stewardship is the logical price for the individual human being's responsibility for his or her own life, resources, decisions and actions. The responsibility for stewardship covers both one's own resources and those held in common. A vital, solidary society with a positive stewardship demands that we all nurture important, citizen virtues and characteristics, among them justice, temperance, courage and prudence, but also care and love. None of us will ever be able to live according to them to the full, but we need them so that we as humans are urged towards a good stewardship of our talents and resources.
Stewardship for common resources covers both material and spiritual values. The environment and our natural resources must be handled responsibly so that conditions favourable to life are not endangered and so as to ensure that coming generation will also enjoy them. For that reason mankind should affect nature carefully and wisely. Spiritual and cultural values form a rich heritage needed to preserve and develop a civilised identity and solidarity. All politics must keep in mind the sensitive interaction in nature. A socially and ecologically responsible market economy founded on free establishment provides excellent political conditions for a positive stewardship. The principle of stewardship is a superb political star to follow when reaching for the common weal and for a good community.
Christian Democrats do not accept those negative sides of the consumer society that have led to a materialistically inspired throw-away mentality. Implementation of such a philosophy have so far led to irresponsible housekeeping resulting to severe pollution of air, water and earth. We also oppose ecosophism, a pantheistically coloured attitude towards nature that will neither allow human beings to affect nature nor to care for it. Mankind is reduced to link in the closed circle without a specific value.
As Christian Democrats see it, a society should be built from the bottom up. Being social creatures by nature, people build associations for special purposes, each with freedom and stewardship, rights and duties founded in those purposes. This process begins with naturally occurring associations such as family, relations and friends. But even the other associations in a civil society such as neighbourhood, interest organisations, unions and denominations own rational motivations based on their appropriateness to purpose. They too are natural associations, forming the frame of society that is then supplemented with local and regional associations reaching up to a national level. After that come the international organisations and relationships among nations.
Each natural association has an intrinsic basic value granting rights and duties towards their members, but also towards other associations and levels. Our view is that these natural associations also own rights derived from their purposes to implement generally acceptable and basic values. These values need not be identical for all associations. However, freedom is a basic value common to and shared by each person in each natural association. One example is that for a family freedom means that the municipality or state should not intrude to decide for the family. On the other hand, the public levels play an important role as support and for conflict solutions between the natural associations on lower levels.
An association should be allowed to take care of that which it can handle in a purposeful manner. The superior associations have a responsibility to support where necessary, respecting in this support the rights of individuals and the competence area of the associations. In this way of thinking, each level serves as a supplement to the lower ones and should not replace or deprive them of either their tasks or their freedom. Should a superior association wish to subsume a function from a subordinate one, the burden of proof of better function lies with the superior. This is called the subsidiarity principle.
Human beings are associative creatures. S/he develops best and is happiest living in an association characterised by concern, acceptance of responsibility and solidarity. Solidarity can be defined as that empathy and love derived from the Golden Rule – do unto others that which you wish they would do unto you. This solidarity extends beyond the natural associations. It seeks social justice defined as an ambition to level structural injustices and create a fair division of societal benefits. Everyone is included and enclosed by the societal association. This is what we call the solidarity principle.
Christian Democracy opposes both individualism and collectivism. People are dependent on close relationships with others. It is in small associations that people have a chance to be seen and to grow. It is in interplay with others that an individual develops to a unique personality. Liberal individualism emphasises the individual over the natural associations. However, people do not only have responsibility for themselves, but also for their near and dear, their relations and for other persons. Socialism emphasises the collective over individual freedom. Thus individuals, families and various minorities are threatened by collectivism and by decisions that do not respect the rights and duties of individuals, families and natural associations.
We live in an imperfect world, one where human beings exist in a constant tension between good and evil. For that reason human imperfection is something typically human. All persons make mistakes. We call this the imperfection complex. Sometimes we even choose to do what we know to be wrong. We do what is wrong. Sometimes we own up to it and other times we deny it. The desire for power, status or money can blind us, persuading us to do things we shouldn't and developing a habit of doing wrong can sometimes soothe the conscience.
However, there is a great potential in human imperfection as well. S/he can choose the good, can choose to develop and cherish his or her natural talents. This power of choice contains unheard of strength and power to change human conditions in a positive direction away from poverty, illness and ignorance. Such a change for the better requires development on the personal level enabling virtue and competence to combine with moral awareness and integrity to lead us to choose good.
Understanding human imperfection demonstrates the need for citizen co-operation and power sharing, as well as providing an important foundation for a developed, realistic attitude towards democracy. In political contexts the concept of imperfection points to the fact that no one political party has monopoly on complete truth, opening up for a more modest attitude towards the possibilities inherent in politics.
The concept of imperfection and the dissociation from all types of utopias lead the Christian Democratic political movement to an open stance towards debate and criticism of the possibilities of achieving political ideals. Such a questioning attitude means that the movement is open to co-operation with various democratic and political movements. Thus seeking agreement instead of confrontation is a characteristic of Christian Democracy.
Accepting human imperfection also serves as a barrier against utopian conceptions and urges. Utopianism can be described as a romantic vision of the perfect political system and a belief in the possibility of attaining a perfect society often enough leads to a dangerous fanaticism, be it collectivist or individualistic.
Questions regarding what makes an individual person a good citizen or how a good society is created are all too seldom discussed. The focus here is the fundamental importance of ethics and character for shaping a spirit of community. A good society cannot exist where people fight each other. On the contrary it is necessary to create a society that serves the whole community well. Working for the common weal is a victory for everyone, which is why it is necessary to have citizens who can separate good actions from bad and who dare to commit themselves. The goal is the common weal – the means are common values.
Is politics needed?
Do we really need politics? Do we need parties? The word politics comes from the Greek word for city state. In the west it has come to stand for affairs common to citizens in a city or a country. Politics means statecraft or the art of taking responsibility for, of leading and of defending a community through laws and regulations, authorities and a judicial system. Today the concerns of politics range from roads and schools to relationships with other countries. Everyone is affected by common affairs and a general tax is needed to finance them. Since it is true that political decisions are taken about matters that would best be handled elsewhere, there is a need for political discussions and decisions to delimit the reach of politics and to restrict political power.
Everything is not political. All people and all natural associations must have the freedom and right to fulfil their goals. For this reason it is very important that excellent conditions exist for a living civilian society parallel to the public one. People must be allowed to decide over their own lives, such as letting families decide over their own childcare and allowing unions and employer organisations to make choices relating to their contracts and areas of operations. Politicians must stand fast against the temptation to interfere unnecessarily. Politicians should create rules, frameworks and possibilities through means like legislation.
Religion is not politics, nor politics religion. In many cultures, however, religion defines the humanity and ethics that permeate the society. In our part of the world it is Christianity that serves as the dominant carrier of the basic values that justify human rights and duties. Still, it is possible to justify humanity and basic values with the same content without referring to God or to Christian tradition. From this follows that the Christian Democratic ethical basis for politics is independent of personal beliefs regarding philosophy of life or religion. Politics involves people's common concerns; religion also touches people's relationship to God. In other words, there is a clear distinction between politics and faith. Even so there is always a risk that people make politics of their religion or a religion of their politics.
Politics can be pursued without parties. Parents can be involved in how schools should function, manifestations can be organised around road investments and demonstrations can be carried out in the streets. Still everyone affected cannot participate in making decisions on everything of common interest. For that reason, modern democracies have chosen to elect individuals in general elections. Working through their parties, these individuals represent their electors via a representative democracy. The party role is to sift various interests through the sieve of their party's values and in that way create a responsible holistic perspective. The political representatives must realise their limits, concentrating their work on those areas where their values and control systems are needed or superior to those of the market or the civil community or the family. One of these places is in vouchsafing the long-term playing rules of the community as a whole.
Christian Democracy serves as a bulwark against both anarchy and all kinds of totalitarian tendencies. Defined as opposing all forms of official control and authority, anarchy can today be seen in militant movements both of the left and the right, as well as in certain extreme liberal trends. If, for example, a majority decision were seen to legitimise crimes against human freedom and rights in western democracies, this would be deemed an expression of a totalitarian attitude.
Does ethics belong in politics?
In order for a society to function it is necessary for its citizens to embrace certain common values. Each civilised society owns such a value base or ethical system which defines how its members should behave one to the other. In all societal constructs, this ethical system has gradually been codified into laws that its citizens must follow. That ethics have become legislation is similar to paths becoming public roads. In this way ethics and politics form a joint complex. This is the reason that Christian Democrats emphasise the fundamental meaning that ethics holds for politics, being and serving as a nourishing humus for right and law.
The concept of justice occurs often in political rhetoric and can be used here as an example. For if justice is to be administered at all among citizens or between them and the public sphere, the action must be carried out from a shared value base. Justice is traditionally seen as a virtue that enables persons to admit and guarantee the rights of others. However, all talk of justice is empty words to justify random decisions so long as awareness or knowledge is lacking about which generally valid values all persons have a right to realise and own responsibility for seeing that others can realise as well. If state, provincial or regional bodies and municipalities are to guarantee the administration of justice, then politicians must know which values all persons have a right to own. If children are to be the focus of politics, then its practitioners must know which fundamental values are to be guaranteed them, such as life, health, knowledge, truth, freedom and natural associations. Absent this knowledge, words like justice and rights lack content. As politics are informed by a perspective on human beings and values, it is important that parties can describe clearly which ethical system and which values form their base.
An attitude towards people and an ethical system are basic to all political decisions. Legislation is an expression of a society's ethics, which in turn is composed of values, rights and standards. Values can be identified by asking what is of value for the individual, for all people and for the community. Shared or generally valid values include life, human value, love, truth, freedom, knowledge and a good environment. These are values in themselves. A right expresses a claim to attain, experience or realise a value – the right to a meaningful life, to be treated with dignity and respect, to experience love, to be acquainted with truth, to gain knowledge and to enjoy a clean environment. A standard expresses a responsibility for values and their related rights – respecting life, showing love, staying within the bounds of truth and decency, gathering knowledge or caring for the environment.
Should legislation and jurisprudence be based on ethics?
There exists an ethical basis for justice that cannot be annulled through political decisions and which is an inalienable part of humans regardless of culture. This basis can be found in Christian ethics and in natural rights. These have informed western jurisprudence and through history they have been manifested in documents ranging from the Magna Charta through a long list of declarations of rights and freedom in Europe, the USA and the UN. It is a realistic ethical system that contains generally valid values, among them life, health, relationships and knowledge, which all people with rights can experience and realise, as well as the responsibility and duty to allow others to do the same. As legislation is an expression of a community's ethics, that society should endeavour to ensure that its legislation and its ethics correspond to the generally valid values.
Ethics presuppose mutuality. Should each person decide values and right and wrong themselves, decisions they take could in reality neither be questioned nor rejected. The reason is that there would exist no standard with which to evaluate. All conceptions seem equally right or wrong. Still, this does not agree with the experience and conviction most people hold that some moral positions are more valid than others. For example lying, abuse and torture are all morally wrong wherever in the world it occurs, has occurred or will occur. Christian Democratic politics are derived from a realistic ethical system with general validity and independence from individuals or traditions.
Christian Democrats reject politics that are based solely on utilitarianism. This ethical system states that what is right can be defined by its calculated benefit. In this way of thinking, it would at times be wrong to kill innocent human beings and at other times right. Everything depends on the effect. There is no intrinsic human value. We also reject the legal positivism derived from the supposition that only legitimate rights are those established by parliament. Further we reject the so-called value nihilism that claims that no generally valid values exist. During the 1900s, a large number of Swedish philosophers, political scientists, jurists and politicians were influenced by what became known as the Uppsala School. This has affected the design of such structures as our form of government and our legal system and has contributed to what we see as the erroneous view of the government's neutral role in the ethical debate and of the purely amoral character law in relation to politics. The Christian Democratic view of laws and democracy are diametrically opposite this value neutral or value nihilistic attitude.
The development and peculiar nature of Christian Democracy.
Modern Christian Democratic parties have certain roots in the Christian-Social parties of the 18- and early 1900s, including Zentrum in Germany, Partito Popolare in Italy and the Dutch anti-revolutionary party. These non-socialist, reform parties were often inspired by Catholic social philosophies, especially in South and Central America, and enjoyed broad voter support drawn from all classes. They were often supported by the Christian-Social union movement. Characteristics from this period inherited by today's parties include value orientation, safeguarding the family, the right to free schools and support for small companies, as well as conscious social welfare politics. However, these parties were often confessional in nature, at least in as much as Catholics voted for one party and Protestants for another. During the interwar period these parties worked as long as was possible to oppose communism, fascism and Nazism. A large number of Christian-Social politicians were arrested or forced into exile.
Following the fall of the Third Reich, a political vacuum was created in countries like Germany, Italy and the Benelux nations. Some of the existing political parties were compromised. They were either Nazis, fascists or communists, or they had been affiliated with those parties. Other parties recovered from persecution or exile. A strong reaction grew against Nazism and fascism, but even towards the power-hungry, rapidly growing communistic movement. These German and Italian totalitarian societal systems had risen in weak, collapsed democracies during the Depression and in a feudal, conservative class society in Csarist Russia. Both the nearly unregulated, capitalist democracies and in the totalitarian dictatorships had experienced secularisation with concomitant value displacement and relativism. During the early part of the twentieth century, human value had been weakened in the western world, being finally crushed under foot and denied by the dictatorships.
In the freed countries on the continent the Christian Democratic parties grew rapidly into a new, independent political factor. Catholic and Protestant voter groups transcended their confessional differences and joined forces. Common to all was the ambition to rebuild Europe using the Christian values abandoned during the secularisation process begun in the Enlightenment Period. War criminals were tried and convicted for crimes against humanity in spite of having followed the laws in force in their countries. After the UN issued its Declaration of Human Rights, a world-wide renaissance gained force propounding a natural rights perspective and preaching human rights. Christian Democracy pointed to the vulnerability of politics and a community founded on laws in the absence of a sustainable ethical system and accepted basic values. Its political singularity and ideological strength was demonstrated through personalism, principles of stewardship, imperfection and subsidiarity, the emphasis on natural associations, class reconciliation and social mutuality, a social market economy and international solidarity. The obvious point of departure lay in Christianity and the Christian heritage, forming a source of inspiration for the Christian Democratic parties that led the rebuilding of Europe. The battle lines were drawn against both sides of the political spectrum, targeting misanthropy, racism, class struggle, plan economies, laissez faire liberalism and egoism.
Large Christian Democratic parties also developed in Latin America, parallel to events in post-war Europe. It was not until the fall of the Berlin Wall that Christian Democratic parties grew in any size in East and Central Europe. And, with the Norwegian Kristelig Folkeparti as its primary model, a Christian Democratic party was formed in Sweden as late as in 1964. As Sweden had not been part of the war, the party political structure had been preserved together with a positivist legal tradition. From the start the party's politics were largely shaped by a protest against the growing secularisation in society, meaning that both the state and various institutions such as the schools were supposed to be neutral during ethical instruction. Christian ethics were weakened while materialism grew stronger. The party's first name was Kristen Demokratisk Samling (KDS; Christian Democratic Coalition). In 1987 this was changed to Kristdemokratiska Samhällspartiet (KdS; Christian Democratic Community Party) at the same time as the party program was revised. Another change came in 1996 when the name was changed to Kristdemokraterna (Kd; Christian Democrats). Since 1984, the party has been a member of the Christian Democratic International (CDI) and the European Union of Christian Democrats (EUCD).
The Swedish party is also represented in the Christian Democratic European Party EPP, as well as its parliamentary group in the European Parliament.
Human beings exist in the charged field between good and evil. They possess an inherent ability to distinguish between right and wrong, a skill that simultaneously grants immense potential and great possibilities for creating a positive community. Humans own the capability and the conditions necessary for developing personal resources and personality, providing well defined driving forces for changing people's conditions in a positive direction, one that leads away from poverty, ignorance and abusive behaviour.
The concept of human imperfection calls for a limitation on the power given a single individual, group or party. Some form of power balance is always a necessity. In addition, the concept of imperfection creates a realistic base for democracy as a working method. No person, party or group knows everything about how a society should be run, though co-operation can ensure the promotion of the common weal.
Right power in the right place is the content of the Christian Democratic subsidiarity principle. This principle is a tool that helps us analyse where the power should reside. In other words, the subsidiarity principle is not a pure decentralisation principle, but both a near and far one. Everything depends on the task to be performed. It is in its perspective on division of power between individuals, families, groups, municipalities, regional levels, state and suprastate levels that the principle has its fundamental import.
The subsidiarity principle states that that which a small association can handle should be left to its responsibility and decisions. The larger associations should support the smaller ones as they seek to preserve this ability. Those tasks that the smaller groupings are not able to handle in a purposeful manner should be taken over by the larger ones.
This principle carries with it that the burden of proof rests on those who wish to take over the functions of a lower association and with that take-over their freedom and responsibility. They have to prove that the lower level is incapable of fulfilling its responsibility in a satisfactory manner and that the higher level can do it much better.
2.1 Democracy
Christian Democracy is based on the idea that all people have the same value and that this value may not be violated. Since modern democracy is based on this basic value, it is the best form of government. This basic value should also characterise relationships between citizens, meaning that they must show tolerance for each other and respect for the people one disagrees with. The value provides cause for empathy and solidarity, for an involvement and responsibility beyond self-interest, family ties, sex, ethnicity, religion and the like. Trust between people is built on this value base and is in turn a condition for solving conflicts in a peaceful manner. If it is not constantly emphasised, tested and cared for it risks being undermined and starved, leaving space for misuse of power, elitism and eventually some form of dictatorship.
The moral basis for democracy grows and is shaped within those social associations that make up a society. In this context it is only natural that the home and family, school and churches, associations, organisations and popular movements have the greatest import. A democratic state is dependent on the existence of moral society with living, functioning moral attitudes in both individuals and groups that serve as base and support for democracy.
The ideal emphasised by the Christian Democratic Party is that a democracy is a system where each citizen is provided opportunities for continuous participation and influence beyond the moment of election. In order for this to be achieved, it is necessary that the way the representative political system, the public administration and the parties function is developed so as to encourage active participation and to ensure that real influence is achieved. A precondition for a functioning democracy is also equality between men and women.
It is also extremely important to encourage and reinforce the democratic responsibility of each citizen. Such a sense for the common community ought to build on certain civic characteristics. The virtues we want to emphasise as important for a civic spirit can be traced to the classical, Christian culture in the West. What we are talking about here are the four cardinal virtues of justice, temperance, courage and prudence. Justice refers to relationships between people, to how everyone defends his or her own rights, but also respects the rights of others. Temperance means that rationality should go before all too sweeping desires. Courage refers to owning the moral strength to dare face up to dangers and stand against injustice. What is meant is civil courage and integrity, as well as earnestly both seeking and standing for truth and right, even at the most inopportune moments. Christian tradition has reinforced and supplemented the content of the classical virtues by adding love, thus enriching communal association not least with selfless solidarity and compassion.
Still, the most important of the four [original] cardinal virtues is prudence, defined as a capacity for critical judgement in deciding what is right and what is wrong on various occasions. Prudence stands above the other three since neither justice, temperance or courage can be practised without prudence. This cardinal virtue is wholly in agreement with what is called critical rationalism, a wish to become informed in various questions, to query, become involved, take responsibility, take initiative and try to understand how others reason.
Virtues are not gifts. They must be earned, cultivated and trained throughout ones life. A living democratic society presupposes that we cultivate these vital virtues, not because we can ever live in complete agreement with them, but because we as humans need ideas and ideals.
Adherence to law and obedience to decisions taken are essential ingredients of a functioning democratic society. However, law and good morality are not necessarily the same thing in all situations. A law may be democratically legislated and still not in agreement with the basic moral values, rights and duties that same democracy rests on. For that reason it is possible that civil disobedience is defensible should human value or basic freedoms and rights be threatened or violated. Still such an action must always retain respect for the democratic order by avoiding violence and property damage while focusing on creating dialogue. Someone guilty of civil disobedience must always be ready to accept his or her punishment.
A strong civil society is essential to a living democracy and a humane society. This is why both the state and the municipality must encourage the involvement represented by various citizen groups, such as associations and folk movements, churches and denominations, local development groupings and new social movements. The growing pluralism in the Swedish society should cause both the state and municipalities to provide different groups the opportunity for autonomy through self-administration of activities central to their organisations. The public sphere must affirm the pluralism created by free and independent citizen associations that exist within the community.
The schools have a great responsibility for preparing the growing generations for participation in a democracy. This requires a development of student knowledge about democracy. The schools must maintain democratic environments that allow differing opinions and demonstrate how disagreements can be handled constructively.
A municipal democracy presupposes autonomous local governments. This autonomy should be strong and clearly set forth in the fundamental law. Citizens have a chance to gain both knowledge of and contribute experience to larger contexts by becoming involved and participate in local government. One step in this autonomy is that both regional and local governments should have the right to levy taxes.
Requests to subdivide municipalities in order to increase citizen influence should be approved absent strong reasons to the contrary. Other forms of citizen influence can be developed through such things as user councils and village councils, in both cases giving greater influence to those most affected.
In order to provide reasonable conditions for a majority to implement long-term policies it is important that the time between general elections be four years. Election day for all levels of government ought to be the same, though it should be possible to hold new elections even at the municipal level.
The country shall use a proportional election system where in principle each ballot has the same value. Elective secrecy shall be maintained. Votes based on individual personality shall be a large part of the process. Every Swedish citizen of lawful age shall have a vote in all elections. In addition, every person of lawful age registered within a municipality shall have a vote in municipal elections.
It shall be possible to use plebiscites both nationally and locally. Both advisory and binding national plebiscites are vital to a living democracy. The protection afforded the freedom of speech in the Fundamental Law and the related freedom of the press prevents governmental action in this area, except in such cases and in the manner prescribed in the fundamental law. As far as is possible, legislation in this area should be independent of technology used.
The public access principle that covers access to public documents is central to an open, vital democracy. The possibility for secrecy shall be used restrictively.
2.2 Constitution
Our basic laws, namely the Instrument of Government, the Act of Succession, the Freedom of the Press Act and the Freedom of Speech Act, are together legally called the Constitution of Sweden. Called the Fundamental Law here, it is the written, legally binding standard for our democracy. The Fundamental Law must be deeply rooted in both the Swedish and Western cultural tradition, thereby also based on a community perspective characterised by Christian ethics and humanism.
The Fundamental Law must express basic values that are founded on equal human value and personal dignity and then use these as the starting point for creating a balance between the public application of power and the individual, as well as between the various levels of decision-making organisations in the community. The Fundamental Law must be the firm ground on which all public standards and decisions stand.
The Fundamental Law must vouchsafe the inalienable rights of the individual and protect them from encroachments. It must also guarantee and protect human rights such as life, liberty and integrity, as well as the freedoms of opinion, religion, speech, print, assembly, association, demonstration and property ownership. The protection of freedoms and rights shall be tied to the relationship between public and private spheres and to that between individuals.
The right to own property is a human right for which reason a rule should be written into the Fundamental Law that guarantees full reimbursement for various types of curtailments of this right.
The Fundamental Law must also ensure that no one is discriminated against because of sex, age, handicap, ethnic origins, religion, sexual identity, political or other opinion, national or social origins, nor financial or social position. By now the European Convention on the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms has been incorporated into Swedish law. This convention clarifies and lends greater weight to the rules in the fundamental law.
A realistic perspective on human beings accepts that all people are imperfect. It is therefore essential that a functioning democracy has a clear separation of powers between its legislative, the executive and the judicial segments. The boundary lines between these power centres must be made clear in the Fundamental Law. Swedish courts have long stood in an unclear relationship to the parliament and the government. As one cornerstone of the Western legal tradition is an independent administration of justice and one that is separate from the political power, the courts must be strong and independent. In that way individual citizens gain a stronger position in their dealings with the state and the municipalities in that the balance between individuals and the public use of power is ensured.
There must be sharp corrective means against misuse of power and concentration thereof. For that reason there must be an independent, competent audit agency on both state and municipal level.
An effective judicial review is a necessity. This is why there must be a constitutional court in order to strengthen democracy and to monitor the exercise of power in the parliament, the government and the municipalities. Its primary purpose would be to consider questions relating to the Fundamental Law or which are tied to it. One important function of this court would be to review all laws and statutes are in agreement with the Fundamental Law. Another important function would be to hear cases regarding the correctness of general elections and related questions.
The purpose paragraph of the Instrument of Government points to the municipal self-government as a means for realising democracy. A true municipal self-government is a central democratic instrument that presupposes a vigorous legal basis for municipal implementation.
For that reason it is necessary to add rules in the Fundamental Law that define the exercise of this self-governmental right. In order to ensure that such paragraphs own judicial effect on the relationship between state and municipalities, it is necessary to have a clear judicial review process, one that allows the municipalities to defend its constitutionally defined jurisdiction against the government and the parliament. This way the municipal self-government becomes an expression of the subsidiarity principle, which in turn ought to become a part of the Swedish Fundamental Law as a guideline for the vertical separation of powers.
At the same time as the municipalities gain broad decision-making powers in their jurisdictions, it is necessary that individuals be sure that their legal rights receive full respect from municipal bodies. The financing principle must be respected whenever the national government passes new duties to the municipalities. Individual cases of municipal contempt against the law shall be countered effectively.
Sweden shall be divided into functional municipalities, counties and regions. Regional self-government shall be vouchsafed through direct elections to regional councils and by granting regions the right to levy taxes.
In principle it shall be possible for all who have lived in the country for at least five years to become Swedish citizens. Internationalisation and refugee movements mean that more and more people live and work in more than one country during their lives. This carries with it the fact that people have a sense of belonging and develop ties to more than one country. Since the basis for citizenship is safety, security, rights and duties, as well as identity and cultural/ethnic origin, it should be possible to have double citizenship.
The Swedish monarchy is strongly rooted in the Swedish people. The monarchical tradition also creates an identity that means much for Swedish history and culture, as well as for the international perception of our country. For these reasons Sweden should even in the future stand as a constitutional monarchy.
2.3 The rule of law and the prevention of crime
Christian Democratic judicial politics are based on a Christian perspective on human beings and on basic Christian values. This embraces the realistic insight that human beings are imperfect and that crimes against fellow humans and against the society will always exist. At the same time society must work to reduce crime as much as is possible.
Justice can be defined as dealing correctly with our fellow humans. In a community justice is a basic value that presupposes a balance between everyone's interests, rights and duties. This balance is disturbed when someone commits a crime or acts unjustly. In many cases the perpetrator has consciously let his or her freedom of action transgress on the rights of others to realise their fundamental values. At that point it becomes a public responsibility to administer justice and to restore the balance as much as is possible.
All people have a personal responsibility for their conscious acts. The surrounding community have a parallel responsibility to show civil courage and to help each individual do what is right. Consequently there must exist agreement between people's view on what is right and wrong and the view defended by the legal system. In addition, any effective corrective action of perpetrators should include both general and individual preventive facets.
General prevention refers to how society makes it clear that crime leads to punishment. It should include rapid, predictable reaction rooted in clear, humane laws. The community must stand with the victim of a crime and can never tolerate abuse and violations of people's integrity and property. Respect for the law must be maintained with firmness and perpetrators shall be brought before the law as quickly as possible.
Individual prevention refers to how society prevents recidivism. It should include a number of communal efforts, such as rehabilitation to ensure that the criminal learns to show respect for his or her fellow humans and for the community at large by following the democratically established rules.
Crime prevention
The most important way to fight crime is to prevent it. This is where adult responsibilities towards children and youth come into focus.
The family role of bringing up and leading the young is vital. The public sphere shall prioritise steps that strengthen the possibility for parents to set limits and provide support for their children in a loving and positive manner. Further and then mainly through the shaping of family policies, the public authorities shall seek ways to make it possible for parents to spend more time with their children. Strong solidarity between parents and children contributes actively to a reducing the risks of children being drawn into crime.
In earlier generations both family and the immediately surrounding community practised a strong social control that kept many from criminal activities. However, during the last decades adult participation in the everyday life of children and youth has been greatly reduced and is in need of strengthening. Voluntary efforts from individuals and organisations to provide children and youths with meaningful leisure activities should be encouraged and supported. Work shall also be put into informing and influencing adults to invest both words and action in taking an increased responsibility for ensuring that our young grow up to be good citizens.
In addition, the society must give clear signals about what is right and what is wrong. A quick reaction to crimes committed and an increased risk of detection are both important. Social services, police and schools share a large responsibility in this area and ought to co-operate closely in order to effect early prevention of criminality in children and youth.
The relationship between the schools and their students, as well as the curriculum in itself, should be such that respect for human value and for the inviolability of human life is inculcated early on. Law and order shall be taught at all levels.
The state must uphold the law at all times. All crimes shall be prosecuted effectively and without exception, including those that can be dismissed as smaller crimes and misdemeanours.
Crimes committed under the influence of alcohol or drugs dominate all criminality today. For that reason it is important to take steps to reduce alcohol consumption in youth and to promote drug-free settings.
Custodial and non-custodial treatment shall be provided with sufficient resources to offer the care required and to support and help those sentenced, both during and after the sentences have been put into effect. The aim is to prevent recidivism.
Sentences
The consequences of conviction must serve several purposes. They must deter the commission of new crimes while protecting society from outrages and other destructive actions by deterring others from committing similar crimes. As far as is possible the consequences shall also include a financial repayment to the victim by the criminal as recompense for the suffering or loss that has occurred and to show the victim respect by placing society on his or her side.
The punishment shall be designed so that the criminal gains understanding of the injury he has caused. In that way, the sentence handed down serves as a way for the criminal to make amends for his debt both to society where the responsibility for safeguarding justice lies and to the victim. By serving out a fair sentence, the criminal not only atones for his or her crime, but also earns the right to be treated thereafter as all other citizens are treated. The death penalty is not consistent with the principle of the inviolability of human life. The sentence should normally be for a set period of time.
It can be meaningful for both the perpetrator and the victim to meet one another. The victim can then confront the perpetrator with his or her experience of the crime and the perpetrator can come to understand the injury that has been caused and gain an opportunity to show remorse and try to atone for his or her crime.
Community service should always be seen as the first possibility when sentencing youth who have committed a crime. Such service serves both a pedagogic and a social function that aims a breaking criminal patterns for the youth and to adapt him or her to a normal and meaningful life. Young persons should not come in contact with repeat or violent adult offenders during their sentence.
All institutions shall be drug-free and have resources necessary for ensuring this. Voluntary organisations shall be provided useful opportunities to work within the institutions to the benefit of the prisoners and to provide societal insight into the operations. The community has a responsibility for supporting the prisoners by helping them to stay drug-free, as well as finding work, training and a place to live once they have completed their sentence and are to enter society again. The aim is to prevent recidivism. Voluntary organisation shall be encouraged to participate actively in this effort.
Police, district attorneys and courts
Faith in a community founded on the law depends on people being able to believe that effective crime prevention and a free, independent judicial system leads to security for personal integrity and property. The state must write the laws and provide such resources as to guarantee this.
The police exist to prevent crime, maintain order and to investigate and proceed against crimes. Establishment of close and trusting contacts between police and the general public shall establish the basis for good police work. An outwardly focused crime prevention effort is important and co-operation with social services and the schools must have the highest priority. Further, the police work shall be organised to that access to police is greatest at times and places when criminality can be expects to peak.
District attorneys shall indict and prosecute criminals as soon as possible. It is especially important that the authorities react quickly to crimes committed by youth, for which reason work with such crimes should have priority.
Strong efforts against economic criminality are important since such crimes threaten the morality in a democratic society. One step is that Sweden ought to strive for co-ordinated steps within the framework of the EU in order to prevent and counteract economic criminality.
Environmental crimes do not only mean that those responsible gain financially in an unacceptable manner, but also that it is done at the expense of coming generations. This makes environmental crimes especially serious. It is therefore important that the authorities are strongly prepared to deal with such crimes.
A solidly functioning co-operation is needed to deal with international criminal developments, both across various boundaries and through well-developed international police co-ordination. Both border patrols and customs officials should be given the resources required to combat international crime syndicates.
Court should be free and independent of the government. They shall process cases in a legally satisfactory and efficient manner. The courts shall be organised so that decisions can be handed down within a reasonable time. It is also vital that the judicial system has local roots.
2.4 Security and defence policies
War and conflicts between both individuals and states occur because of human imperfection. Our fear of the unknown, greed, envy, lust for power, prestige and such forces are often the reasons a conflict grows and becomes a war. Successful security and defence policies are based on early-warning systems and work to forestall and prevent conflicts that lead to violence. Such policies are able to mitigate the consequences of war and to protect human lives, freedom and property.
The right to life is a basic human right and respect for this right is a necessary precondition for making it possible for individuals to enjoy their other rights. The right to life, corporeal integrity and respect for personal dignity also includes the right to self-defence.
Whenever conflicts arise, peaceful methods such as discussions and negotiations are preferable to using weapons. Neither aggression nor offensive war are ethically defensible.
However, a Christian Democratic point of view allows for use of weapons is acceptable under the following criteria and then only after all attempts at solving the conflict with peaceful methods have been exhausted:
· To prevent the conflict expansion, promote the building of peace and to support and protect various humanitarian efforts.
· To mount a defensive action, but then only if there is a justifiable purpose – self-defence, protection of innocent lives or safeguarding basic human rights.
· The force used must stand in proportion to that which is to be defended and to the destruction that results. Aggression towards civilians is not acceptable.
· There must always exist a seriously considered possibility for success. Even a defensive war ceases to be legitimate if it only can lead to continued suffering and destruction.
Mankind is dissoluble. Its members and associations are ethically bound one to the other through mutual rights and duties. Peace cannot be built without active and creative efforts. Common institutions ought to exist to increase international co-operation in these questions and to make the efforts more effective. UN, EU and OSCE are three such international organisations that have at times succeeded in preventing conflicts and thus contributed to a more peaceful world.
Independent states are extremely valuable in that they are responsible for the common good within their borders. However, when states fail to protect their citizens or when they systematically act against human rights, there arises a duty to stand by exposed fellow humans. Aggression must never profit and there is not right to adopt an attitude of passive neutrality and thus to abandon people exposed to acts of war. That is why there must exist rules in international law for when and how international organisation such as the UN and EU can intervene, even militarily, in order to prevent systematic excesses against the civilian population in another country. Such an act is called a humanitarian intervention. What we must do is shape security policies with the primary aim of ensuring people's security as opposed to only the state's.
Swedish security policies must be characterised by co-operations, forethought and holistic solutions within an international security co-ordination. The goal is to broaden the development of peace in our immediate surroundings, in Europe and in the rest of the world. The UN should be an effective, strong organisation for global crisis management, while the EU and the OSCE should serve as European security organisations. It is positive that the USA participates in the European security structure through its involvement in NATO. An open, intimate co-operation with NATO ought to be a natural part of Swedish security policy.
After the end of the Cold War our picture of the world changed, creating the need for a modern security system for Sweden focusing on international co-operation and a mutual responsibility for human security.
As a member of the EU, Sweden is part of the growing European security co-operation being built up. We cannot be neutral should our neighbours be attacked. We should be part of the work of solving security problems in Europe and the surrounding area and, to the extent of our abilities, in the rest of the world. Swedish commitments should promote European security and focus on preserving peace. A European defensive co-operation also supports the Swedish system with its focus on peace and freedom. Swedish military involvement shall only be carried out after independent Swedish decisions.
Crises must be met with all the preventive means available in politics. Foreign, defence politics and security policies together form a whole when joined to economic, environmental and foreign aid policies. The best way to avoid armed conflict is to promote respect for human rights and to vouchsafe a democratic tradition. Yet, these basic values must constantly be recaptured and defended.
New types of conflicts and new threats lead to a broadened security concept. The threats range from the hard core of traditional threats to those that are a result of the vulnerability of modern society. Sweden must be able to meet attacks from international criminality, terrorism, IT-war, biological weaponry, chemical ones and nuclear weapons. In addition there must exist the ability to handle new types of conflicts including relating to income or where human rights are violated.
The main task of the armed forces is to protect human life and freedom. This is normally best accomplished by securing territorial integrity and to set up border controls that support the outer security in times of peace. Beyond that a total defence is needed that can maintain preparedness for participating in aid during catastrophes and other difficult strains on society, as well as participating in preventive steps to limit the risks for such. Sweden should also be able to participate in actions outside Europe following decisions by the UN Security Council or based on criteria acceptable under international law. The armed forces should comprise such forces, composition, preparedness and deployment that they can have a deterrent effect during security crises in the immediate area.
All Swedish citizens shall have a duty to participate in total defence. In that way the defence system finds its roots in the Swedish people and the access to personnel is handled in a cost-efficient manner. Call-ups for training in times of peace are based on defence department information and on external threats. All who complete their military service ought to consider themselves as being in the service of peace and as guardian of the security and freedoms of fellow citizens. At the same time all who for reasons of conscience cannot carry weapons, must be met with the greatest respect and be granted the opportunity to do civilian community service.
Both the civilian and the psychological defence must have sufficient resources to be able to guarantee the population acceptable protection against the effects of both civilian catastrophes and actual military threats. The financial defence is an important part of the total defence. In principle, Sweden should be able to ensure the availability of both food and energy, as well as maintaining a positive preparedness in the case of blockade of foreign trade.
Civil resistance and other alternative forms of defence shall supplement the military defence and offer an opportunity for active efforts by citizens who wish to participate in the country's defence without carrying weapons.
One consequence of tasks assigned the armed forces is that a war materials capacity must be established in the country that in turn presupposes a domestic weapons industry. Weapons export shall be limited to democratic states and carefully controlled. Export shall not be allowed to countries carrying out offensive war or to states involved in systematic violations of human rights.
2.5 The European Union (EU)
Mutual human concerns are decided at many different societal levels. It has been a shared experience since the late 1900s that more and more of these must be solved through international co-operation. This is true because the problems and opportunities of individual citizens are to a much greater extent the result of international contexts.
It is this connection to the realities of individual persons that makes the European Union essential. EU is a supra- and interstate effort to create the citizenship or democratic acceptance of responsibility necessary for building a good society. We want to create a citizen's Europe, open to citizen control and where their security and welfare are protected by the union.
The EU must never be only an interest association. The peoples of the union are also united by common values based on our shared heritage from the Judeo-Christian tradition and from humanism. This is a strong and vital heritage left to the stewardship of the EU-countries. The union today is based not only on these fundamental traditions, but also on convictions concerning the democratic system and human rights. Add to this a social market economy and you have a value association the EU ought to strengthen without therefor raising walls against the surrounding world. On the contrary, EU relationships to the world around it must be characterised by respect and cultural dialogue.
The ultimate goal for the EU is to serve as guarantor of peace, security and dialogue between the European people. The principle ought to be that the union should be open for every European country that shares basic values like democracy and human rights, as well as a social market economy.
For Christian Democrats the conviction that all people are of equal value forms the basis for relations with other folk groups. European security will be shaped by co-operation and solidarity that transcends boundaries. The union must also have an independent, co-ordinated capacity for handling both military and civil crises within or adjoining its borders. Each member state should be able to make independent decisions on participation in a possible common territorial defence.
A logical consequence of the international association is that Europe should be open to the world around it. The EU has a responsibility for contributing to fair global playing rules capable of giving all countries the opportunity to attain a sustainable development. By establishing a common policy on development aid, trade policies and foreign politics, the EU can contribute to this. Trade and agricultural policies must be changed so as to be consistent with international solidarity. It is also the duty of the union to be open to those people who seek protection from oppression and violence. A common asylum policy is desirable in order to share this responsibility among the EU countries.
On the financial front the EU can contribute to the development of welfare by expanding and improving the inner market. This must be done by simplifying the rules and improving competition, by breaking up closed markets and monopolies, and by stopping inappropriate governmental supports. In that way the union can create improved possibilities for private entrepreneurship and thus provide a chance for people to create financial security for themselves through their own efforts.
The EU shall have a social and ecological market economy. Christian Democratic thinking has inspired the European model, thoughts that unite individual freedom with acceptance of communal responsibility for a social safety net for all. It is important to oppose the tendencies towards increased gaps that come with structural changes. This is best accomplished by creating the conditions for life-long learning and for a dynamic financial development in all regions.
Full European employment can be accomplished in a flexible economy that is open to entrepreneurship and benefits personal initiative. Only in this way can EU's inner market come to full fruition. However, each country must have the right to construct its economic policies. Together the EU countries must furnish good conditions for knowledge-based future oriented companies. European legislation must create stable, beneficial rules for IT activities that cross national boundaries.
The inner market is based on the vision that an increasingly interwoven European economy ensures peace. In addition, this inner market strengthens competitive strength and financial dynamics. In order to ensure that the inner market will work in the long run, it is necessary to establish a close and solidary co-operation on money and currency policies. This is why the EMU was initiated. Sweden ought to be member of the EMU in order to participate fully in the economic co-operation, to affect and influence all of EU projects and to accept a solidary share of the responsibility.
It is desirable to bind all of Europe into one, open association. For this to happen, support for those regions with the greatest problems is essential in order to help them keep step. The EU agricultural policies must create the conditions necessary for a competitive European farming industry consistent with international solidarity and a living countryside. In addition such policies must serve as a guarantee of biological variety and ecologically prepared food.
Because environmental problems respect no borders, the EU is in many cases the most suitable level on which to solve environmental problems in our part of the globe. The stewardship principle must therefore have deep roots and wide application within the EU. This would bring with it the long-term, sustainable development that must be the goal for all of the union's policy areas. The principle of prudence and that the polluter pays ought to be central to environmental work within the union. The EU should seek to implement green tax exchange in all its member states. The environmental policies must be flexible enough to allow each nation and region to adopt measures that suit their singular situation. On a global level, the EU must be active in seeking a solution to global climate problems. It should be possible to set minimum levels for environmental fees within the union by a majority decision.
An increased co-ordination of energy policies is necessary within the EU, as is a region-wide co-ordination to meet the challenges brought by global climate changes. Another challenge is to ensure access to energy across borders. Common steps for better energy housekeeping are needed.
A strengthened environment guarantee with reversed proof should be set up, meaning that it is up the actor who is least environmentally adapted to prove that the so-called environmental guarantee cannot be applied.
A close co-operation is necessary at EU-levels in working to militate against serious cross-border crime and smuggling. Top priorities for this work should be trafficking in drugs and humans. Prosecutors and police authorities within the union must co-ordinate efforts and European police co-operation should be far advanced. However, police authority should be sharply delimited, in part to protect individual integrity.
The manner in which the EU functions should be suitable for a large membership. Changes in the treaties should be unanimous and all member states should also approve the transfer of any new authority to the EU. In general, however, majority decision-making should apply.
The European Union should have constitution that lays out in clear terms how power is divided between the EU and the member states, as well as describing the way decisions are to be made. European citizens must be able to understand the decision-making process in order to be capable of demanding responsibility. The intent of the Swedish public access legislation should apply within the EU. It should also be clearly established which areas are EU areas and which are not. It is necessary to define EU areas of authority in order to prevent unwelcome centralisation. The decision-making process must also include a mechanism for applying the solidarity principle.
The European Parliament shall meet in one place only. Flexible integration shall be allowed within the union in order to give countries the possibility for expanding the efforts at their own speed and to provide groups of member states the opportunity to develop their shared concerns. A basic requirement is that respect for national culture and local languages be guaranteed.
Chapter 3
Mankind – unique or one animal among others?
IT MUST BE THE HEIGHT OF PRIDE AND EGOISM to assign values and rights that far exceed those other creatures have. Is there indeed a legitimate reason to value a human life higher than, for example, a chimpanzee whose genes are to 98% the same as a human's?
According to Christian traditions the demarcations between human and animal ought to be motivated by the perception of human beings as persons. What then does this mean, this possibility for describing human beings as opposed to animals in these terms? The answer is that the concept of person makes a human a unique individual and that as such, s/he belongs only to him or her self. This means that a human cannot be reduced to being an item of trade, to someone else's property or to a part of a larger collective.
At the same time, a person is much more than an individual. He or she may indeed not belong to anyone else, but is still not self-sufficient. Rather a person is a social being who develops in relation to other persons – both social and self-sufficient, in other words. Still, it is not primarily in this way that humans are different than animals. On the contrary, there are many animals who can be characterised as separate individuals within a group.
That which grants human beings their inviolable value and singularity is their rational nature, that we sometimes also call reason. What we are talking about is the ability to make conscious choices, to reflect over one's existence and become involved in activities that extend beyond primary drives and instincts. Art, intellectual growth and existential anguish are examples of the manifestations of this uniquely human characteristic.
This rational nature also means that humans are not fettered by instinct. They can be a moral activist with freedom to choose between good and evil, but with the concomitant responsibility for the choice made. Not only does this human place apart comprise rights, but also to a great degree, moral responsibilities. One such is that human beings own the duty to take responsibilities for animals, ensuring that they be treated with a respect and concern that obviates unnecessary suffering. At the same time it would be wrong to position humans’ own status to include animals. Only humans have the inherent possibility for separating good from evil and with it a moral responsibility for his or her own actions.
The fact that people are more or less incapable of acting rationally in various situations does not cancel their rational nature nor invalidate their inviolable value. Being of a rational nature is not the same acting nor even of being able to act rationally. One example will suffice to illustrate. A sleeping person cannot act rationally, yet that person still owns a rational nature. The way a person acts in this condition can hardly be seen as action we normally call rational, such as by careful consideration and calculated choices. But the person still owns a rational nature.
For this reason it is not expressions of reason that are decisive for the human rational nature or value. It is important to remember that the capacity for reason is knocked out by more serious matters than sleep, including dementia, accidents and psychological illnesses. The rational nature constitutes humans. It is not a matter of choice, nor is it exchangeable or temporary, but exists from conception to the moment of death. Absence of rationality does not affect this absolute.
It is true, however, that everyone's actions are associated with varying degrees of irrationality. Just as human beings sometimes display encouraging reason, so can her actions with unfortunate frequency be characterised by unfathomable evil and idiocy. In Christian tradition the understanding that this double nature is also a part of humanity is called the imperfection principle. This in turn leads to the conclusion that it is in association and co-operation with other humans that these lacks are best compensated.
3.1 Old and young
Society must create the conditions needed for humans to grow up and to age in security and dignity. Respect for everyone's equal and inviolate value must be maintained throughout life. The value of dignity in a society can most easily be measured by how the most needy are treated.
That both old and young are underrepresented on different decision levels is worrisome. Good decision-making requires that representatives of all ages participate in decision-making assemblies and contribute their varied perspectives.
It is also important to create places where young and old meet. Meeting between generations encourages contact making and an exchange of experiences that can contribute to increased understanding and reinforced community fellowship.
Elderly
The older generations in a society are a great asset. They represent long experience with life that should benefit society. Interaction with this experience is a crucial condition for a vital, growing society.
All citizens should be allowed to age with dignity. This means that health and medical care services must be accessible and be provided in a holistic perspective that focuses on the individual, taking into account mental, spiritual and material needs. This societal responsibility means that care for the elderly must be broadly based with home care and health service, various types of daytime activities and a broad range of residence forms. Involvement of the elderly shall be encouraged through patient, retiree or user associations.
The point of departure for health and medical care services must be the needs of the individual elderly. Respect for the individual's integrity and self-determination must permeate the entire approach. For that reason all support for the elderly must be characterised by free choice of health and medical care services.
Society must be wholly open to different forms of health and medical care service. For that reason it must be possible for care for the elderly to be operated both publicly and privately. Support service should be available to enable those who wish to live at home to do so. Every municipality must offer some form of service where relations can go for advice and support.
Health and medical care services for the elderly shall be financed in solidarity. Access to the service needed must never be predicated on the availability of personal financial resources. Fees shall be established with this as the starting point.
It is important that all who receive care and their relations are aware of the demands that can be made on the supplier of service. This is why a guarantee of dignity in health and medical care situations should exist, one that relates to the conditions under which the operation is run. There should be some place where either care receivers or their relations who feel that the care organisation is lax in providing the care guaranteed can turn with their complaints.
Youth
It is while growing up that the individual's identity is formed. It develops through interaction with parents and family, other small, natural associations and the surrounding community. Youths need to have adults in their lives who have the energy and desire to serve as that point of security necessary for emancipation and the creation of identity. Youths own the right solid growing conditions, ones that satisfy both the need for security and for personal development. Public authorities should not be structured or operated in a manner that hinder youth, their parents and other proximate adults from sensing and accepting their responsibilities. Rather it behoves the public organisations to accept an active responsibility for supporting voluntary efforts in the community and a duty in relation to specially exposed groups.
Youths represent a great asset the community must draw on. In decision-making it is essential that politicians listen to and take into account the viewpoints of the younger generations. This is especially important for the youngest groups who lack voting rights. The fact that many youths choose to work outside the existing parties should not be seen as a threat, but rather as a challenge for the parties to vitalise the way they work.
Many decisions made by adults have greater impact on children and youths than on the decision-makers themselves. Such decisions include choices about public debt, design of the school system or environmental questions. This simply highlights the importance of youth having an opportunity to influence political decision-making.
Channels available for interacting with youths include associations that organise youths as well as structures for youths within the municipal organisation. All political decisions should be made within the stewardship principle, meaning that the consequences of those decisions should be studied from a future perspective. Resources must be set aside for a clean environment, responsibly managed government finances and a robust insurance system.
The right to vote must be tied to a certain degree of maturity. It is obviously difficult to establish such a level, but we believe that it ought to coincide with coming of age.
3.2 Health and medical services
All care services must take as their point of departure the fact that each human is unique and that all humans own the same absolute and inviolate value. Security, trust and self-determination are important values in health and medical services. This means that care services shall have a holistic perspective on people that focuses on the individual, taking into account mental, spiritual and material needs. The health and medical services shall be an expression of care and solidarity between people in the society.
Health and medical services face great challenges as life expectancy increases, and technical and medical advances create possibilities for more and better treatments, both at a time when the expectations on health and medical services change and increase. It is indeed positive that general health levels are improving and that life quality gains opportunities for betterment through preventive work and effective treatments. Psychosomatic illnesses and stress-related ill health are serious problems that call for measures within health and medical services, as well as from employers.
Health and medical services shall have primacy when community resources are allocated. Health and medical services with solidary financing are at the core of welfare systems. Needs-based management shall inform its organisation. A demand-based system contradicts the principle of the absolute and inviolate value of all individuals. However, health and medical services based on the human value and needs principles calls for setting priorities, meaning limitations in relation to those segments not included in the solidary financing form. Individuals should be able to choose such treatments freely and finance them personally or through various insurance schemes open to all citizens.
Health and medical services with solidary financing shall be characterised by quality, variety and free choice. Several different caregivers can stimulate innovation and add new dimensions to care services. Private, co-operative and non-profit alternatives shall be provided the conditions needed for development. Citizens shall have the freedom to choose local caregivers themselves. Care and dignity guarantees based on ethical priorities shall be formulated.
Care shall be available under the same conditions for the entire population. Women's health should be given special attention, as research still remains focused on men's health. Even people who have problems taking advantage of their free choice shall be afforded a good, secure and dignified care.
A broad definition of health that includes nutrition, exercise, ambient environment and relationships refers to living as healthy a life as is possible within one's own possibilities. Work promoting health shall be stimulated. Social and financial conditions, working environment and daily habits influence how health develops. For that reason, efforts in public health may not be limited to health and medical services, but call for a joint responsibility and co-ordination between the various areas of operation.
Everyone should know that the service that one day may be called for will be available. Health and medical services are in that way a citizen right. The ability to affect care and treatment, to enjoy a full accessibility and to be assured of a broad openness in a positive meeting between citizen and care personnel provides the basic conditions for mutual respect and trust.
The individual shall be offered adequate treatment that takes physical, mental, social and spiritual needs into consideration. That's why health and medical services must offer appropriate help to meet these needs. Discussion of ethical questions shall be part of the training of all care personnel.
Health and medical services with solidary financing shall be appropriate and cost-efficient, safe for the patients and be evidentiary, that is based on knowledge and proven experience.
Care service competence resides in its personnel. Health and medical services are knowledge-intensive organisation. The personnel must be provided with excellent opportunities to develop their skills. They should also be encouraged to entrepreneurship. Influence and participation contribute to a good working atmosphere and are important to the development of care services in that they provide the conditions necessary for retaining and recruiting staff.
Medical capacity shall follow the patient. Proximity to care, functioning care chains, sufficient number of beds and cross-disciplinary care with high quality creates the conditions for secure and dignified care. The continuity is reinforced by the right to a family or general practitioner, which in turn can contribute to increasing security. A cross-disciplinary team is of decisive import for good care. The family doctor, another specialist or yet someone else in the team chosen by the patient can also serve as a guide in different care situations.
At some time in their lives, many of us suffer from psychic ill health. Psychiatric treatment and care must be characterised by accessibility and flexibility based on patient needs. Local care systems should include a psychiatric team. Rapid and accessible capacity for helping children and youth with psychological problems should have high priority.
Care provided by relations is a vital resource that must be nurtured and made visible. Such efforts must be entirely voluntary. Relations who care for someone near to them in their homes shall have the right to receive financial compensation, guidance, relief and training.
Dental care is part of the health and medical service. Everyone must have access to good dental care. The high cost limitation for dental care should be part of that for the rest of the health and medical system. Dental care for children shall be free.
Medicines are a vital part of most treatments. New, economic medicines are constantly being developed. It is important that knowledge from supplementary or alternative medicine be included in the established health and medical system. Medicines shall be part of the solidary financing system and shall be provided at a subsidised cost to the patient as indicated and after special approval. There shall be an insurance system for patients who have given the wrong medical treatment.
The need to store personal information is necessary in the health system. Such registers must be protected from unauthorised access.
3.3 Medical ethics
The right to life is a necessary precondition for making it possible for individuals to enjoy their other rights. The absolute, inviolable human value is in that way tied to human existence from conception to the moment of death. Seen in this way, we believe that the right to life shall be made part of the Fundamental Law.
Traditional medical ethics are derived from the principle of human value. It is rooted in the Christian tradition and Greek medical arts from Hippocrates and on. Man is a purpose as such. A sick person must not be treated in an insulting manner or as a means to something else. That is why absolute, unique and inviolable human value must permeate guidelines, regulations and practice in the medical ethics area.
Another perspective on mankind can be obtained by going back to utilitarianism or impact ethics. This ethical system embraces no specific human value. The only value is the calculable benefit and, in medical contexts, enjoyment or absence of suffering. The logical consequence of such a way to look at life and suffering is that human life as such becomes subordinated to the minimisation of suffering. Killing in order to prevent suffering can in this system be seen as a justifiable act. This view is in conflict with the human value principle.
The acceptance of an absolute, inviolate human value has led to additional principles on benevolence, justice, self-determination and about not causing injury. This means that the patient is to be treated well, without discrimination. Investigation and treatment may not be carried out without patient consent, unless a commission certificate has been issued. However, the frequently complex reality often leads to ethical dilemmas. Whatever we choose, the result can be something we do not wish, something that is morally wrong. Such moral dilemmas exist and must be considered when laws are written and reforms implemented. The state and the body of laws have as one duty to inform, clarify the dilemma, indicate the desired direction and provide judicial leeway when deciding. Respect for health care personnel is essential so that no one is forced to participate in treatments that conflict with one's convictions.
Moral dilemmas and the impossibility of choosing right when all alternatives for action are in some way wrong must not be taken as proof that the basic medical ethical principles are invalid. Rather they serve as indications that existence is neither simple, nor black or white.
The ability for consideration and love are part of the human identity. It is natural to pass this on to the next generation. That is why the inability to conceive children can be a painful experience. At the same time it must be seen as a gift to have children, not a right. As stated in the human value principle, no person can be a means for someone else. During attempts to assist conception, such as in vitro fertilisation, the natural process should be sought as far as is possible. Adoption should be made easier through governmental or other official measures.
Foetal diagnostics should be used to diagnose illnesses with an aim to cure, prevent illness or protect the child. Increased possibilities for early detection of tendencies for certain illnesses aimed at intervention can mean that people are assigned varying value. Such variation does not only refer to the human embryo in question, but even those in society who live with just such illnesses or conditions. Foetal diagnostics shall serve life. Genetic engineering may not be carried out on human reproductive cells.
Genetic test on adults in order to ascertain the risk of a predisposition to certain illnesses may only be done on the individual's request and/or informed consent. Storing blood tests and other tissue test from human beings shall be considered as genetic person registers and shall be protected from unauthorised access. The ethical principles also indicate that information about a person's genetic material may only be released with that person's consent. Employers, insurance companies or similar instances may not require genetic tests as a condition for employment or insurance.
It is the responsibility of each value-based democracy to protect the conception of life. For that reason an abortion represents a conflict between the right to life and the situation of the parents who feel they do not have the possibility to have a child.
Against the background of the human value principle, it is impossible for the government and the legislative branch to remain neutral in the ethical dilemma created by an abortion. An abortion means the termination of a life. However, the solution to this dilemma is not prohibition. Experience shows that abortions are carried out whether they are allowed or not, and if not using methods that threaten the woman's life and health. It is unreasonable that anyone other than the woman makes the decision about possible abortion during the first trimester of a pregnancy.
Instead the goal shall be a society where abortion is not requested. The task of the society must be to reduce the number of undesired pregnancies through preventive efforts and to offer the greatest support possible so as to ensure that practical, financial or social problems to not form a hinder to completing the pregnancy. In this context a central task is also to work for a society that is more accepting of children, one where parenthood is made easier and encouraged in different ways.
Human value is as absolute and inviolable at life's end. A dignified death with good care during the last phase of life is in full agreement with the principle of human value and with people's deepest wishes. The medical services must serve life. For that reason we reject euthanasia, asking instead for a holistic perspective that aims at advanced care and palliative treatment as death approaches. Personnel shall receive both pre- and continuing training that raises awareness about existential questions. It is also important to work for a positive attitude towards organ donations. The wish of the donor shall decide.
3.4 People with physical handicaps
The myth of the perfect human being as ideal and standard risks becoming a threat to basic values like empathy and solidarity. Politics must be rooted in an outlook on humans that both grants an inviolable value and accepts that all people are different, owning different talents, interests and possibilities. The Christian view of humans satisfies these demands.
Handicap levels are not static. Rather they are a result of society's readiness and ability to meet handicapped persons halfway. The handicap becomes personal only when the community is incapable of compensating for the problem.
Handicapped individuals are in danger of being treated negative special treatment in various situations. This is discrimination and can never be tolerated. For that reason it is necessary pass legislation that defines the outer limits for work with handicap rights. The most important work against discrimination is done during childhood and adolescence. And of the public institutions it is the pre-schools and schools that have the primary task of providing the standards and values based on Christian view that all persons have the same value.
However, work for handicapped individuals must not be limited to measures for preventing negative special treatment. Even compensatory efforts reduce the importance of the handicap and are therefore necessary. The goal is to reduce the effect of the handicap in society. One important guide in this area is the UN standard rules to ensure that handicapped individuals can participate and have equality. The 22 rules cover all societal segments and are an excellent, important tool for state, county, region and municipality in planning and implementing all activities.
Legislating to ease the situation for handicapped individuals is justified. Rights for the handicapped laws should exist aimed at creating good living conditions. However, it is vital that responsibility and financing follow on the law so that the position of handicapped individuals is not threatened and citizen faith in operations with solidary financing is not undermined.
Another important way to reduce the impact of the handicap is to increase accessibility in the community. One example of this is that it must be self-evident that consideration be given when designing of public establishments, facilities and information systems to the need of handicapped to enjoy easy access. The same is true for cultural and leisure activities. Special attention must be paid to the needs handicapped children since they can seldom claim their rights themselves as vigorously as adults. The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child states that the highest priority is the best for children. One example is that even children need personal assistance and transportation service. Nor may they be discriminated against because of their youth. It is even necessary to pay attention to the special needs of children when it comes to various aids.
Aids, education, health and medical care, as well as services of various kinds must be designed to satisfy individual needs. Effort must be expended to ensure a high degree of free choice in these areas. The individual must be able to decide personally who is to supply the service.
Many handicaps are invisible. However, this may not affect the design of community support, which must be adapted and effective regardless of the nature of the handicap. Persons with invisible handicaps own the same right to community support as those with more physically expressed handicaps. It is especially important to mitigate against those prejudices and feelings of shame that unfortunately characterise attitudes towards physical illnesses.
Public assistance to relations should be flexible, depart from the wishes and integrity of the individual and be designed on the subsidiarity principle. The efforts must be supportive and supplementary instead of being controlling and replacive. In other words, it should not seem as if it were a requirement for relations to care for a handicapped individual, but where such desires exist the public organisations should meet the caregiver halfway to as great an extent as is possible. The assistance can come in the form of financial compensation, training, relief, support and advice, as well as meeting places for related caregivers.
3.5 Cultural policies
Throughout history mankind has been characterised by an uncontrollable creative urge that has left indelible evidence. Absent the cultural creativity of such as musicians, authors, artists and actors the world would have been much the poorer. Just this cultural activity over the years demonstrates that human beings cannot be reduced to being only merely a biological creature with exclusively materialistic needs. Rather, that perspective on humans that Christian Democracy embraces lays emphasis on establishing a holistic view on mankind taking her mental and spiritual dimensions most seriously.
Culture gives us roots into our history, meaning in today's world, visions for the future and the possibility of entering into a context. Culture helps become whole individuals. As a part of that process, culture has value in itself and may not be placed in a demarcated corner, but must be allowed to permeate society.
In order to achieve a full flowering of human creativity, it must be granted fresh air. Artistic freedom must be defended, openness and tolerance promoted and respect for the integrity and philosophy of life of other persons shown. Freedom of speech cannot be used as a shield for phenomena that violate human value. The public sphere should not only guarantee cultural freedom, but also actively contribute to ensuring that culture becomes everyman's property. Again, it is the subsidiarity principle that should serve as a guide for the attitude taken by the state, regions, counties and municipalities. This means that cultural activities operated by civil society should be supported by the official without control and that public decisions in cultural questions should be made at a suitable level.
The public sphere owns a responsibility for ensuring good working conditions for creative artists, as well as supplying that which the civil society cannot offer. The state shall be responsible for maintaining what is usually called a cultural infrastructure in the whole country.
Good cultural policies must strive to protect the valuable cultural heritage left by earlier generations. The Christian Democratic name for this responsibility is stewardship. Such a stewardship includes the physical cultural heritage we see around us in the way of historical buildings, ancient monuments and objects, but even those customs and habits that have developed over the years. An important role in this effort is played by public institutions such as museums, working together with voluntary organisations and associations. The stewardship responsibility also embraces the Swedish language whose place as the majority language should be written into the Fundamental Law.
Libraries are our most utilised cultural institutions. We want to continue to safeguard this unique place for reading, information and knowledge acquisition, public education and meetings.
Our heritage and our contemporary culture are constantly enriched by people with different cultural backgrounds. It is a central, public duty to support the efforts of the minorities to retain and develop further those cultural characteristics they themselves see as important. One way to do this is to use legislation to ensure minority languages a strong position. The goal must be to create a community where individuals and associations have the freedom to express their creativity. Such openness to pluralism is the only path to real integration. Successful cultural policies increase the possibility for people and various associations in the society to see themselves as equals, which in turn increases the willingness to co-operate in order to uphold and develop our democratic community.
A rich cultural life also vitalises democracy. Adult education plays an indispensable role in this process, representing as it does a liberating power in the community. Increased knowledge provides citizens with tools that make participation in community life easier, thus strengthening the democratic process.
As the media programming becomes more commercial and grows explosively, the importance of independent, non-profit, non-commercial radio and TV stations increases. For this reason the state's public service media is irreplaceable. Public service broadcasting should provide rounded, relevant news reporting, as well as broad, high quality cultural programming that not only satisfies the majority of its viewers, but also the needs and wishes of minorities and handicapped individuals.
3.6 Religion and church
One of the most characteristic expressions of human nature is the ability and the strong inclination to reflect over his or her own existence. This has given birth to a number of existential questions that have been part of our existence throughout history, dealing with such matters as the creation of the world, death and the meaning of life. In other words, human mental and spiritual needs are among the most human ones.
It is irrefutable that historically Christianity has had a great and positive influence on the world and on Sweden. The teaching that each human is created in God's image and desired by God has contributed in an incomparable way to respect for each person's unique value and irreplaceability. The centuries old ideal of equality has been able to find nourishment in how Christian faith has placed everyone on equal footing independent of ethnic origin, sex or social position. This philosophy has been tangibly present in such movements as the abolition of slavery. The denominationally unique distinction Christianity has established between spiritual and worldly authority has become one of the basic tenets for the western traditions of political and religious freedoms.
Christian ethics form the greatest part of the basic values our society is built on. It can be seen in our laws and in our attitude towards the weak and sick. In addition, Christianity and the Christian denominations have been influential both in the growth of democracy in the West and in the collapse of the communistic dictatorships in Eastern Europe. Christianity has also contributed in many ways towards shaping the spiritual, cultural and democratic landscape in Sweden. Preserving this heritage is our duty to coming generations. Creating an awareness of our own historical identity is a central educational task for societal institutions and thereby an important condition for understanding people with different religious and cultural backgrounds.
Secularism has been pushing Christianity into the wings since the early 1900s. Add to that that the immigration over the most recent decades has meant that the country has become more and more marked by religious pluralism. Since human beings are free, thinking creatures with their own conscience, religious freedom is a natural, human right, meaning that all people shall have the right to profess and practice their own faith. This increasing, religious pluralism must not only be tolerated, but also be respected. It adds new perspectives to existential questions increasing thereby both understanding and knowledge of other religions and their practitioners. The freedom to practice one’s religious faith may not, however, lead to the abuse of others in the name of faith.
The public authorities shall maintain the subsidiarity principle in their relationship to the various churches and denominations, that is they shall be supportive and supplementary instead of controlling and replacing. This means that churches and religious denominations shall be given full opportunity to work and develop freely without state control and in accord with their singularities. For this reason it is wholly correct that the Church in Sweden has separated from the state.
In addition to serving as a forum where people can share and express their spiritual longing, a strong denominational life benefits society even in a more general manner. Not only does it promote the establishment of standards and the preconditions for forming shared basic values, but the democratic system is strengthened as well when people are involved, working together in differing forms of association work. The public sphere should therefore support those denominations that carry out activities whose character and purpose agree with the basic principles that each person is unique and that all persons have the same absolute, inviolate value.
The fact that the public sphere shall relate to the various denominations in accord with the subsidiarity principle also means that state, county and municipal operations shall not replace that run by denominations. The denominations are part of civil society, which in turn is a result of the initiatives of individuals and groups. The public sphere shall supplement instead of competing with such activities. In other words, the task for the public bodies is not to replace, but to encourage, co-operate and make use of denominational activities in such areas as the social, both inside and outside the country. Still, the municipalities and the state remain the final repositories of the responsibility for ensuring welfare for its citizens and for satisfying Sweden's international commitments.
3.7 School, education and research
An unquenchable thirst for knowledge is perhaps one of the most prominent traits of human nature. This drive to seek the truth has historically led humans to acquire increasing amounts of knowledge about existence resulting in many scientific gains. Seeking knowledge is a human right that must be protected.
However, the authenticity of this human trait presupposes that there exists an objective, existent reality to study. Though we may never reach the final stage of truth in our search for knowledge, the certainty that that stage exists and can be sought comprises the actual point of departure for Christian Democratic educational and research policies.
The stewardship principle also places on us a mutual duty to pass on the gains of earlier generations and to encourage continued searching today. From this perspective we have both a personal and a shared responsibility for utilising our resources.
In accord with the ethics preserved in Christian tradition, all schools shall raise students to become responsible citizens. The schools shall be permeated by the conviction of the equal, unique and inviolate value of all humans. Solidarity with the weak and exposed, equality between the sexes and tolerance for differences between people shall be promoted. Mobbing and other abusive behaviour must be sharply counteracted. The school as a secure working environment must be ensured.
Pre-school operations
Children have different needs and possibilities. For that reason, children need varied support and stimulation depending on age, maturity and social background. It is vital that the pre-school period be characterised by compassion and play, and that the pedagogical segments increase as the children grow older. This pedagogic activity must be carried out on the children's terms and not let instances of play be lost.
Families must have solid chances to choose if and for how long their children should participate in pre-school activities. They must be able to choose between various types of care. It is vital for municipalities to support alternatives such as family nurseries and open pre-school facilities. Good parental choice presupposes a varied supply. Pre-schools shall be flexible in nature and meet the needs of the individual child.
Compulsory, upper secondary, adult and other post-secondary education
The school system has two primary purposes. The first is to stimulate the intellectual and practical development of knowledge in their students, including critical thinking. The second is to foster the students to good citizenship. Provided that the schools have this point of departure and follow the curriculum, schools should be allowed a great deal of flexibility in shaping the actual instruction. It is also important that students have the possibility for influencing their study situation and that parents become involved in their children's school activities.
Individuals or associations thereof who decide to organise private schools shall be encouraged and supported by the public authorities in doing so. The citizen initiatives inherent in the private school movement must be protected by both state and municipality. Furthermore, the choice of school shall be free, being devolved to the students and their parents and not limited by school fees. Schools must be assured the resources necessary to satisfy students with special needs. School start for both compulsory and upper secondary schools should be as flexible as possible.
The main goal for schools should be to ensure that students develop an attitude that most nearly can be described as virtuous, defined as a constant effort to do what is good. The content and message in concepts such as wisdom, justice, solidarity and civil courage should be shaped and conveyed in the teaching. It is important that the scholastic working environment be permeated by security, peace and quiet, as well as good order.
The schools' teaching shall use the natural, human thirst for knowledge as its point of departure and work to realise the full potential of each student. Student acquisition of knowledge shall be encouraged, evaluated and improved via individual discussions with teachers and grading of work done. The schools have a responsibility for making sure students get the support and the stimulation they need. It shall be possible to forward student grades as information to other educational institutions such as upper secondary and post-secondary, as well as for future employers. It is vital that student know-how be evaluated so as to correct any deficiencies as early as possible. At the same time it is important that students with special talents and characteristics be encouraged and provided with the conditions for developing these. The special school for children with learning disabilities has immense import for those of these students who can attain an independent life, as well as the opportunity to participate in society on equal terms.
Priority areas for compulsory schools shall be the basic skills of reading, writing and arithmetic. Time shall also be set aside for practical and aesthetic subjects that contribute to a rounded, creative personality development. In order to function as an active citizen and to gather the basis for continued education, all students in compulsory schools must gain knowledge in language, as well as social studies and science oriented fields. A public health perspective also makes it essential that students are motivated to participate in exercise and sports activities.
The upper secondary school shall in much focus on the needs and interests of the students and should therefore be characterised by multiplicity. The students should be offered a broad spectrum of both theoretical and practical courses. Apprentice programs shall exist where the training alternates between school and worksite. Examinations should be arranged in order to maintain quality levels for the various curricula. An upper secondary school exam also defines the skills and knowledge the student has acquired under his or her study period.
The possibilities for continuing education must not be limited to a certain age range in younger years. Rather there must exist lifelong opportunities for starting completely new lines of study or to add to earlier education. This means that adult education must be broadly available. This also increases the chances of satisfying the multifaceted and rapidly changing need for trained staff expressed by the business community. It is also urgently necessary for adults with learning disabilities to be provided with opportunities for education and further development. The folk high schools represent a separate, very valuable educational tradition that must be prepared the freedom and possibilities for development on its own terms.
The academic sphere does not offer improvement possibilities to persons with practical interests and talents. However, this would change if the system allowed for a practical training pathway following graduation from upper secondary schools leading to a vocational institute of higher education. The existence of such a training system is important in a society that suffers from a shortage of qualified craftsmen, as well as other categories.
Universities, institutes and research
Universities and other institutions of higher education have two main goals for their operations, namely to ensure that the students acquire scientific knowledge and a scientific attitude, as well as generating new knowledge through scientific research. The scientific work carried out at institutions of higher education has a value in itself in that it is an expression of the natural human thirst for knowledge and search for truth. All subjects must be guaranteed sufficient resources so as to mitigate the possibility of financial growth attitudes dominating the allocation of resources within these institutions. Even if universities and other institutions of higher education are extremely important for such areas as renewal in the commercial sector, regional development and improved health, it remains essential that subjects where gains cannot immediately be converted to material growth still be assured of solid conditions. Education and research in areas such as the humanities are often culture carriers and contribute to improving the quality of life.
Universities and other institutions of higher education are positive for society by providing the labour market with well-educated manpower and because the scientific advances simplify our lives. It is important for our welfare that Sweden is a leading research nation, for which reason there must be resources enough to enable us to maintain a high international level. As it is in the common interest that it is profitable for individuals to enter and complete higher education, resources must be invested in maintaining a high quality. Education at both under- and postgraduate levels must be encouraged. The universities and other institutions of higher education must constantly undergo quality evaluation. Freedom of thought is a prerequisite for a successful search for knowledge. Universities and other institutions of higher education shall own a high level of self-determination in relation to the government. Universities and other institutions of higher education with other principals than the state shall also be encouraged and supported. There must also exist large possibilities for private universities and other institutions of higher education to establish admissions criteria for various courses of study, as well as for their design.
Higher education shall be accessible for all who are interested and who own the capacity for studies at those levels. One way to increase accessibility is to offer distance studies. It is essential to change the ethnic and social misrepresentation in higher education and active efforts to attain greater equality and better parity at universities and other institutions of higher education. No one should need to abstain from higher education for financial reasons. Studies at schools at that level should be fee-free for the individual student. Living expenses during studies should be shared by the individual and the state. The study grants and allowances system shall be sustainable in the long term and be easily understandable.
As for all other persons in the community, it is natural that students in higher education should enjoy full freedom of association. This includes the right not to join, as well as to organise new student associations. The concept of obligatory student associations is foreign to Christian Democratic ideology.
The Christian Democratic perspective on self-administered universities and other institutions of higher education carries with it that representatives of these units – researchers, teachers and students – shall have the decisive input and responsibility for the operation. However, the community as a whole also owns an interest in the development of the schools and can contribute valuable experience.
Knowledge gained by the human thirst for it can be misused and applied in morally reprehensible contexts. The individual researcher, the scientific community and the community at large have a great responsibility for ensuring that the activities at universities and other institutions of higher education are run within given ethical boundaries where the absolute, inviolable value of all persons forms the natural point of departure.
3.8 Equality
The basis for equality between women and men is that all humans own the same value. Men and women shall be afforded the same conditions, formally as informally, in order to be able to realise their full potential. Equality also means that both sexes have full power over their lives and to shape that life according to their own desires. It is an important task to remove traditional notions, prejudices, structures and legal barriers that obstruct or block equality between the sexes. This is true in family life, at work and in the community as a whole and must be done not only through legislation, but also through opinion building and attitude changes.
The equality perspective shall permeate all political areas. This means that proposals and decisions shall be analysed from an equality point of view in order to elucidate possible consequences for women and men. The prerequisites for good political decisions grow when men and women are equally represented in all decision-making assemblies.
Equality begins at home. Children learn early by observing their parents' sex roles. In order for equality to be achieved it is vital that both male and female roles change and that both sexes share the responsibility and the practical work at home, in the family and in the community.
Equality is good for the children. Parents have the same responsibility for the wellbeing of their offspring and both parents have the right and a duty to participate in their care and fostering. The impact of both male and female models during childhood must not be underestimated.
Public support for families with children should be designed so as to make it financially possible for both women and men to prioritise time with the children. The woman's position on the labour market is improved if childcare is the natural choice of both parents. Opinion building is important so as to ensure that parental leave for both parents is seen to develop and increase the skills of the individual.
A child-friendly working community is a precondition for allowing both sexes the chance to develop in their professional role and simultaneously function in the important parental role. Politicians, employers and unions have a shared responsibility for ensuring this. An important factor is the ability to influence the time worked and the physical placement of the job.
One sign of lack of equality is unjustifiable differences in salaries between men and women. This gap is caused by different valuations, as well as differences in the value of various jobs as set up by employers and unions. Traditional female jobs such as in nursing, care services and teaching should be valued as high as traditional male jobs. The principle of the same salary for similar work is basic and should be maintained.
Efforts at better equality are essential throughout the educational establishment and then especially when the children are young. The goal ought to be to provide the same possibilities and opportunities to men and women. Differences between girls and boys when it comes to maturity, value patterns, language and performance must be observed and be allowed to influence how the schools function. Pre-schools and compulsory schools are mostly dominated by women, while universities and other institutions of higher education are in much a male world. Since the educational establishment plays so vital a role not only in bringing up the young, but also in community development and research, it is important that efforts be made at all levels to attain an even sex distribution.
Post-secondary education institutions have an important task when it comes to creating an equal society. They shall all be characterised by equal opportunity and working environment. Research parameters shall be designed to take into account both male and female situations in connection with parenthood.
It is vital that the skills, perspectives and priorities of both sexes are part of all political processes. Here the political parties have a large responsibility. The political leadership at national, regional and local levels should be models when it comes to questions of equality.
Male violence against females is the ultimate manifestation of a lack of equality in a community. It is completely unacceptable that anyone should have to live under the threat of violence. Violent pornography and prostitution must be prohibited. The law must delineate that violence against women is a serious crime. Efficient processing of such cases presupposes well-trained police, prosecutors, social workers and the entire health and medical corps, as well as a properly functioning co-ordination between authorities. Women who have been abused must be given adequate support. The support provided exposed women by voluntary organisation should be encouraged.
The health and medical services must consciously observe the differences between women and men. These can have different symptoms and differing care needs for the same illness. Both pharmaceutical and medical research must focus on both sexes.
Equality in sports is important, especially to break the traditional male dominance. The knowledge, experiences and values of both sexes should be applied and influence the development of sports. Official support of sports should promote equality.
Equality between men and women is a significant area of co-operation on the common market. The European co-operation must promote equality in all activities within the EU. This co-operation should also be used to combat the sex trafficking in women and children. Laws must be written to ensure that crimes against women and children perpetrated by Swedish citizens in other countries can be tried and punished in Sweden.
Discrimination of women in developing countries makes the work of alleviating poverty, encouraging democracy and promoting human rights more difficult. Encouraging equality between women and men, while improving the situation for women are both goals and means in this work.
Chapter 4
Mankind in society – sufficient unto herself or in need of others?
ARE HUMAN BEINGS LONE WOLVES, sufficient unto themselves or are they in need of others? Is it fear of enemies that have brought mankind into communities and families? Or is it part of the nature of human beings to form associations?
Each person is born into a context with close relations. We have a deep need of other humans and at different times of our lives we are all totally dependent on others.
Association is something natural to the human race according to the personalistic perspective on mankind. Human beings take responsibility for him or herself, for those close to him and for his situation in life. She forms associations and social networks, gaining comfort from having good relationship with her fellow humans. Families, relations and the other associations in the community such as neighbours, interest organisations, unions and denominations all come into being naturally and can be rationally motivated from their purposes and in how reality appears.
The family is a natural association whose special purpose is to care for the children. It is interconnected with duties and rights. You are born into the extended family and neighbours are yours when you move into a neighbourhood. Interest organisations are groups you join because you share a purpose and unions are needed to organise employees for protecting common interests. Everybody feels good when the associations are characterised by faithfulness, care, generosity and honesty.
The family is a natural, basic association that forms the core of the community. When that association fails, it is the duty of the municipality to support the family socially and financially in fulfilling its tasks and responsibilities. This support is a consequence of the subsidiarity principle meaning that not only should natural associations not be deprived of their tasks, but also that the nearest public level above the family should provide support as needed.
Legislation shall provide that the public sphere shall respect the family's sphere and rights. The family shall not be deprived of its natural tasks, but instead be given the prerequisites and, as needed, the social and financial support to be able to fulfil its duties independently and securely. The most apparent responsibility is to take care of the children and to be responsible for their development into grownups.
Natural associations such as families, relations, neighbours, companies, interest organisations, unions and denominations combine to form the civil community. These form interconnected networks without which no society can function. This creates strong social ties with secure, orderly relationships. If the state, regions, counties or municipalities fail to respect the rights pertaining to the civil society that enable it carry out its tasks, the common good will be undermined. When the public sphere subsumes the tasks of the civil society through legislation, taxes, incentives or duties, the vulnerability of the entire community is increased.
Christian Democrats stresses the value of personal relationships. Good relationships form the basis of a good society. Good relationships give us great personal joy and understanding, they create security and ordered circumstances, they affect efficiency in the economy and the pattern of solidarity in the population.
4.1 Family policies
People develop, mature and feel best in small groups. In the small group formed by a family, the members gain the possibility to feel love, compassion and understanding, but also face demands and take responsibility. In this way the family as an association links into mankind's deepest need – the need to be seen and not be replaceable. One important condition for enabling a family to function is that everyone respects certain basic values, such as equality and respect for each person's integrity. Yet another is that the family not function as a closed unit, but rather as a base for further community involvement. When shaping policies for families with children it is important to understand that no two families look alike.
In our changing, globalised society the family's role as creator of identity and balance increases. Naturally there is no such thing as a perfect family and parents without faults. As in all other human situations conflicts occur and mistakes are made. Yet in spite of its faults, the family remains the most important building block in society and is that life form that owns the greatest possibility for being that small, close association that is needed for people to grow. If the family does not function as a base, then the community cannot function either. Just as elsewhere can abuse and oppression never be tolerated within a family. That such does occur cannot be taken as a reason for dismissing the family as a communal form.
Being a parent is the most responsible task anyone can have. Parenthood means taking on an important, meaningful societal task and that one should be able to demand the best possible conditions for being able to handle it.
The needs of children and families form the point of departure for family policies. Everyone must have the possibility to choose the childcare form that best suits one's situation. The task for the state and the municipality is to create the financial and practical conditions for this. Since need and desires vary over time and between families, the community's support for families with children must be organised so it can be utilised in as flexible a manner as possible.
Family policies must create the conditions necessary for parents to spend more time with their children. An more balanced distribution between earning a living and caring for one's own children would in many cases bring with it improved contact between parents and children and even create positive effects when promoting forming families and increasing family stability.
Men and women must be equal and have the same possibilities within the family as elsewhere in the society. Equality begins at home and the children learn early from parental role models. For that reason it is essential that informational efforts stimulate parents to sharing the parent leave so that both have an opportunity to participate in their offspring's development and upbringing. Children need and have a right to contact with both their parents, not least the daily contact even when the parents no longer live together.
The situation for single parents needs special attention. Different forms of special financial, social and practical support should exist to make parenthood easier. There is a large group of people living in single parent households and it is vital that their situation is remembered when making political decisions.
Grandparents on both sides, as well as relations and close friends form an indispensable resource in a community with high demands on the parents of small children as they try to balance a hard working life with a demanding parenthood. A flexible childcare system and housing policies that simplify multi-generation arrangements are example of how such relationships can be facilitated.
Whenever an adoption is contemplated the goal shall be that the child receives a new mother and father to replace the biological parents. Adoptions should receive financial support.
Stable, functioning families are good for both children and adults and are a necessary prerequisite for a good community. Marriage is the most secure legal form for cohabitation between man and woman. In opinion making and through legislation society ought to present a conscious will to stable family associations that are best structured through marriage. Parties not wishing to enter into matrimony, but still wish to order their cohabitation must be able to enter into voluntary contracts.
Family counselling must exist and be easily accessible as a support of family stability. Parent training is a type of preventive effort that should be offered to everyone. Co-operation with adult education organisation and other voluntary groups can be beneficial in this connection. Different types of meeting places for parents and families lend good conditions for networks and associations among people.
The state ought to provide financial support for families with children so that these are assured a reasonable standard of living. The pension system should be designed so that caring for your own child and/or reduced time at work during the years the children are small does not act to the detriment of one parent.
The job of the state is to ensure that parents have the financial wherewithal to choose themselves how they wish to shape the childcare for their children. The concept of childcare includes not only what the parents do in their own home, but also nurseries, pre-schools, family nurseries, open pre-schools, after-school facilities and other forms. The task of the municipalities is to provide subsidised pre-school facilities for those families who wish it. Establishment freedom shall pertain for different alternatives, independent of what the legal structure is. Private, non-profit, co-operative and municipal forms shall be acceptable. The pre-school function with its vital, pedagogic assignment must be characterised by even, high quality with small classes and personnel with both teaching and caring skills. Parent participation shall be encouraged and facilitated.
4.2 Social policies
Social care shall be based in human need for small, natural associations, primarily then the family. Social policies shall provide support when problems occur and stimulate the natural strengths in these associations. The solidarity principle motivates us to take common responsibility for all people and especially the vulnerable among us.
Social networks are built up by people working together to form associations and are a natural, deciding part of our lives. In everyday life responsibility and mutual exchange of support and care are woven into a stronger net. The family and relationships between generations are of decisive import.
These social networks seem especially meaningful when people are met with difficulties of different types. The welfare society must be based in individual and groups of persons, where groups like family, neighbours and associations are given the first opportunity to take a large responsibility for the immediate surroundings. The public service must support the natural networks in accord with the subsidiarity principle. However, the public sector still retains the final responsibility for ensuring that everyone can live a secure, dignified life. Public, non-profit and private programs must supplement each other.
The goal for our social policies must be to support the associations and individual persons in realising their own living and good care. Social policies must bring to the fore the equal value inherent in each individual regardless of age, ethnic or social origin, sexual identity, religion or sex. The efforts carried out by the social authorities shall contribute to a fair, solidary distribution of welfare among all citizens, thus providing comparable conditions for all. All efforts in this sphere must be characterised by respect for personal integrity while providing the possibility for influence and participation by individual adults and children.
A social insurance system with solidary financing shall exist and be guaranteed in law and/or via contract. This social insurance system shall provide financial security throughout life. Deductions shall be combined with high cost limitations. Reimbursement levels shall be set up so that the individual is stimulated to participate in measures designed to return the individual to as good health as is possible and to bring them back into work situations.
There are clear links between the expenses for social insurance, health and medical care, vocational rehabilitation and municipal social services. Financial co-ordination of the collected resources available to these services is essential for an effective utilisation. Local organisational and financial co-ordination shall be encouraged so that the public resources can be used optimally for care and rehabilitation measures.
Children have the right to a safe environment when growing up. Efforts to support children and youth should take the UN Convention for the Rights of Children as their point of departure, building on the networks that exist close to the child. Co-operation between different principals shall be well developed.
There is a municipal responsibility to assist whenever the need arises. The construction of social grants shall be the same in the whole country. However, since local conditions vary, each municipality shall have the right to set support levels based on the principle of municipal self-determination.
The pension system shall be based on the income total built up through the individual's lifetime, forming the base for calculation of the fee paid and the pension due. There must exist a guarantee pension with solidary financing for those who have been unable to work up a reasonable pension. The retirement age shall be flexible, being based on the individual's free choice. It shall be possible for spouses to share pension rights. Pension calculations shall include allowances for caring for your own child, for studies and for military service.
Alcohol and drugs
Alcohol policies shall aim at minimising alcohol-related injuries through a low consumption. The conditions for reducing such injuries are created through general and specific measures such as information, an active price policy, restrictive legislation, age limitations for purchasing and a state sales monopoly for alcohol.
Preventive efforts shall lay priority on children and youth. So-called white zones shall be promoted, namely certain situations and periods that are completely alcohol-free. These could include during pregnancy, while the children are growing up, in traffic and during work. All public settings shall be smoke-free. Neither alcohol or tobacco advertisement shall be allowed. There should be an age limit for purchasing tobacco. Alcohol consumption at any public representation shall be moderate.
The goal for narcotics policies shall be a community without drugs. All non-medical possession and use of narcotics shall be prohibited. Addict care should focus on breaking the dependency and provide conditions for a new, drug free lifestyle. Care and rehabilitation shall hold high quality. It shall be offered and be available in the whole country. Such care shall primarily be based on freely chosen participation. Compulsory commitment shall be used with great care and only where special reasons exist. The efforts of voluntary organisation with addicts are indispensable and shall be supported.
4.3 Association and leisure time questions
Human beings find it natural to form association and social networks in order to take responsibility for themselves, for those close to them and for their living situation. A vital association life is significant since involvement in associations brings with it democratic learning and transfer of standards, as well as promoting the accepting of personal responsibility. Furthermore, associations are a meeting place where social contacts are created and developed. The civilian culture is a prerequisite of a living democracy, as well as for the financial development of the community. The social capital that is found in the natural networks owns great significance for politics and for its possibilities for changing society.
Associations and other groupings that organise people's cultural and leisure interests are often called the non-profit sector. Idealistic or interest based organisations that wish to speak out for special groups in important questions have contributed strongly to the welfare society we have today. It is important for politicians and civil servants to understand that non-profit organisations are independent of the public sector and that they exist primarily to fulfil their own goals. However, this does not mean that they lack societal goals for their work. On the contrary, it is essential that the social capital represented by a non-profit organisation is also tied to democratic values and that they wish to contribute to improving living conditions based on their own goals.
Non-profit operations shall be given priority over commercial interests when the state and municipalities frame their leisure activity policies. Gifts to non-profit organisations ought to be tax-deductible or tax-free. Public support shall primarily support activities for and with children and youth. In deciding about such support, it is important to ensure that girls and boys receive comparable opportunities for leisure activities.
Sports are one of our largest folk movements, contributing to raising the life quality for many persons. The elite sports form a source of inspiration for the broader sports activities and must have reasonable conditions for operating. However, the basis for sports as a folk movement is the idealistic work by many individuals to provide a good leisure activity for children and youth. It is important to counteract sports elitism among younger participants.
4.4 Housing and community planning
People's immediate environment as it is expressed in our housing and the community around us has a great influence on our psychic and physical well being. A safe and aesthetically pleasing surrounding is important for feeling good and for positive development. Christian Democratic community planning centres on planning for safe, handsome environments where the residents have participated actively in the decision-making process and feel involved in the final creation.
Planning a community where everyone is at home, feeling involved and secure, calls for a vision of the good community. This vision means that all community planning should be based on human need of small associations. For this reason it is essential that all community planning begin at that level, seeking solutions that promote just those associations. Seeing planning for residential areas in this way moves the planner to create areas where people can meet in small groups within a small-scale, understandable housing built around our smallest citizen, namely the child. Multi-generation arrangements ought to be facilitated in order to promote relationships that cross generation boundaries. Special consideration should be taken for the elderly and physically handicapped.
It is important that all citizens who are touched by a plan can offer their points of view as early as possible in the planning process. Impact descriptions shall always be prepared and then especially for how the plan will affect the smallest, the oldest, the handicapped and our general living environment.
Quietness has become a rarity in our environment, especially in the big cities. The municipal planning process must keep this in mind and consciously plan for quiet zones to the benefit of recreation and leisure life.
Valuable cultural and natural settings shall be preserved. In addition to quiet zones, radiation-free zones should be inventoried and maintained. The aim should be that there should exist varied housing forms in all parts of a city, town or housing areas in order to create financial possibilities for a mix of ages and persons with varied backgrounds. This is one way to counteract ethnic, social and financial segregation.
A trade policy and impact analysis should be prepared whenever planning touches on intra-municipal interests such as external shopping centres. Planning ahead for community growth reduces the need for expropriation, something that should only be used in exceptional cases. Planning should also focus on building and designing communities so as to promote security while crime is prevented and obstructed.
In order to protect important natural interests it should on principle be forbidden to build on or near a shoreline. It should, however, be possible for a municipality to allow housing near a shore when there are no valuable natural interests or other public interests that collide with the private interest to build there.
Growing up in a positive physical setting is another important factor in housing policies. A good home and a good neighbourhood are basic to welfare. For that reason, everyone should have the right to a good home at a reasonable cost. Living arrangements shall facilitate association and an active everyday life.
The municipalities shall have the social responsibility for ensuring the housing supply for their citizens. However, it shall be considered a part of municipal self-determination to choose which way access to housing shall be vouchsafed its citizens.
Residents shall have real possibilities for affecting their living environments and expenses by sharing responsibility and gaining influence. The possibility of choice shall exist, not only between different ownership forms, but also different sizes and standards. Varied collective housing should be available. The tenant's wishes and opinions should be observed when apartment houses are renovated. At the same time it must be possible for the owner to be paid for investments.
Some form of rental control should exist in order to protect the residents from unreasonable rental raises. The system for establishing rents should keep in mind location and standard. Security of tenure shall be assured in law. Public housing companies and foundations shall compete with private companies on the same conditions.
Residents must have real possibilities for affecting their housing situation. For that reason it must be compulsory to change to a tenant-owner form if more at least half of the resident so wish. The tenant-co-operative form should also be encouraged and a system of owner-occupier should be set up. This calls for establishing a so-called three-dimensional property structure.
Property taxation may not be in conflict with the right to ownership or with fiscal principles such as tax according to financial strength or the equal treatment principle. Private homes and owner-occupied flats are not a capital placement and therefore should not be taxed annually as if the house or flat generated a continuous, taxable yield. Since the state has no direct, property-related expenses, there should be no national tax on property. The municipalities, on the other hand, should have the possibility of levying a fee that represents the at-cost expenses the municipality has for servicing the property.
Environmentally adapted architecture plays an important role in meeting the goal of attaining a sustainable development. The construction industry stands for approximately one third of the global resource withdrawal, energy consumption and waste generation. Recyclable and health-approved building materials, use of renewable energy and resource efficient solutions are important strategies in reducing the environmental impact of construction. Housing must also be planned to provide possibilities for closed circle solutions such as source sorting of waste. The indoor environment needs special attention, especially in public facilities such as schools and sheltered housing, but also in private homes and apartment buildings.
Even low-income families, retirees and students must be provided opportunities for a reasonable living standard. Community investments ought to be designed to avoid so-called poverty traps for both those working for a living and those seeking work.
4.5 Integration and refugee policies
Based as it is on Christian ethics and as a part of the Western culture, the Swedish cultural heritage has contributed to the shaping of our country's legislation and legal tradition. This ethical base constitutes a uniting force for a multi-cultural society, one where many cultures, religions, life-styles, languages and experiences live side by side to the benefit of all.
A multi-cultural society cannot function without a shared ethical base that is respected by both majority and minority groupings. One part of this ethical and historical base is just respect for the value and singularity of other individuals and folk groups. Those who own a strong identity and command knowledge of his or her own history has a better possibility of wanting and daring to meet that which is different and foreign. This is also true of the representatives of the Swedish majority culture. Knowledge of how our Swedish historical background has led to the current community is part of the base that creates a strong individual identity for those citizens born here as well. And it is a prerequisite for successful measures against xenophobia.
The point of departure for the integration policies is to provide people with the conditions needed to take responsibility for their own lives. The state should collaborate in the efforts to facilitate and create these conditions, but not plan or take control of people's lives. The public sector shall seek to create positive living conditions for its citizens and to shape equal opportunities for development and the realisation of life projects.
Integration policies shall be characterised by a citizen perspective. For that reason, people shall have the freedom and possibility to organise as desired, such as by forming their own associations, start pre-schools and set up schools with ethnic base.
This strengthens identity and benefits the integration process.
The best way for Sweden to achieve a generous and humane refugee is to co-operate with other states. Asylum, visa, immigration policies and border checks are important, cross-border policy areas. That is why it is necessary for the EU member states to have a common, generous refugee policy that takes people's need for protection into consideration and where humanitarian reasons for asylum are primary.
Migration policies may not result in separating family members from each other. Expulsion and non-entry decisions that lead to such separations may not be made or implemented, absent extraordinary reasons. The child perspective shall always be a part of migration considerations.
When refugees arrive in Sweden the entire process must be designed to protect the legal rights of the individual. Resources for receiving refugees and for investigating their situation must be sufficient to manage short waiting periods, law and order and efficient management. Both physical and psychic health problems of refugees and asylum applicants must be heeded. It is vital that serious, early information is provided about support available for remigration.
Members of voluntary organisations active in the refugee segment, as well as others with suitable knowledge should be able to serve as citizen witnesses in asylum investigation. Voluntary organisations are also important when introducing refugees into the continued integration process.
Immigrants must be guaranteed solid opportunities to learn the Swedish language and about the Swedish community. Such studies should be adapted to the individual and be coupled to apprentice-style work in job situations with an aim of increasing possible integration in the society as a whole. The desire and ability to earn one's own living should be utilised.
School children should be given the opportunity to learn their mother tongues in order to be capable of maintaining good contact with their parent's cultural identity and to broaden this country's language skills.
Immigrants shall have the same freedoms as other citizens, including the right to live where they wish, practice their religion, teach their children their mother tongue and in general to enjoy their human rights fully.
Sweden's aboriginal populations and national minorities are a living part of the Swedish community and their languages are a valuable part of our culture. By granting linguistic and ethnic rights to the Samish, Swedish Finns, Tornedal peoples, Romish and Hebrew groups their self-confidence and cultural identity is reinforced. It is vital that the needs and interests of these groups are heeded in all parts of the country and on all levels of the public sector.
4.6 Development efforts and free trade in a global economy.
The concept that all people wherever they live own the same value and that we all have responsibility one for the other form a strong motivation for the solidarity that is fundamental to the Christian Democratic ideology. Human value is universal and cannot be made relative to geographic borders.
Therefore we see all global economic gaps as unacceptable. A freer world trade with fairer playing rules are a prerequisite for reducing these differences. Only then can people in the so-called Third World pull themselves out of poverty by their own actions. A long-term development support is essential for this process.
The overall goals for Sweden's development co-operation must be to vouchsafe human values, promote human rights and democracy, and to raise the living standards of the poor. The focus for this work must be the situation of individual people. For that reason, the measurement on development must be more than changes on the macro level.
Human rights are both a goal and a means in foreign aid. The conditions for a positive economic, social and environmentally sustainable development, as well as for a more equal distribution of resources, are found in increased participation in society, stronger civilian communities and greater power and resource sharing.
The war on poverty is multi-faceted, but it basically focuses on providing the opportunity to live dignified life. The means are promotion of economic growth and trade, work for social levelling, financial and political independence, support for developing a functioning national health and medical care system, householding with natural resources, concern for the environment, equality between women and men, as well as security and conflict prevention measures. In poor countries women are often forced to carry the main burden for the family and therefore the heaviest burden of poverty. In the light of their responsibility for the family and for children, women's situation should have priority in development co-operation.
Work with global development calls for a holistic perspective on relationships between poor and rich countries, including debt reduction and trade, increased domestic refinement of raw materials, foreign aid and environmental questions. Aid cannot create economic growth by itself, but must be a component of a unified foreign policy that supports human rights and the development of poor countries. The development co-operation should place primary focus on knowledge transfer, as well as on changing rules and structures that hinder development in poor countries.
Trade and aid policies must be co-ordinated in order to ensure that the economies of developing countries are integrated in a sustainable manner into the global economy. Trade liberalisation policies are needed for those products the poor countries can best produce. Access to the EU agricultural market is important as a part of fairer playing rules for poor countries. They also need support in developing a technical legal capacity required to handle increasingly complex trade rules. New IT ought to be used to better integrate developing countries into the world economy.
The development co-operation is all too often based on the thinking, technique choices, financial systems and social structures of the donors, resulting in a life style transfer that is not socially or ecologically sustainable. At the same time as the West is looking for new, sustainable production methods, much of the international aid must focus on supporting the building of a national environmental protection, on training and on the transfer of environmentally adapted technology.
The co-operative development efforts can contribute to peaceful development and counteract conflicts. Co-operative work on combating environmental problems and preventing the spread of HIV/AIDS, such as attempts to solve water questions and handle population growth are all related to aspects of security policy. Support for human rights and democracy can contribute effectively to the stabilisation of new, still weak democracies. For that reason priority should be given conflict preventive aid, including efforts to reconciliation and stabilisation in post-war areas.
Humanitarian aid is an important part of international aid. People suffer, refugee flows increase and most crimes against human rights are committed during catastrophes and conflicts. The resources and distribution systems of international and voluntary organisations should be used, especially when armed conflicts or dictators prevent the delivery of aid via official channels.
The ultimate goal of international aid is the day when it no longer is needed. In order to support the national will to give, it is proper to establish a foreign aid level that holds in both low and high business cycles. Sweden ought to give at least one percent of its GNI in international aid. Beyond this level, a state should use different ways to promote the voluntary involvement and willingness to make donations for aid purposes.
Control, co-ordination and follow-up of aid given must be carried out. Independent evaluations of the aid should be done. This is also true of those multi-lateral organisations through which much of Swedish aid is channelled.
4.7 Human rights in foreign policy.
If human value is to be our central focus, then efforts to protect and vouchsafe human freedom and rights must be one main goal in foreign policy. The human rights concept is built on the thesis that the individual human must be protected from injustice in all cultures and religions world-wide. Human rights regulate the individual's rights towards the state and the state's responsibilities towards the individual.
Swedish foreign policy must promote peace, freedom and development, as well as human rights, understanding and reconciliation. It is not a question of forcing a western point of view regarding human rights on other countries, but to promote such generally accepted human rights as are applicable to human relations around the globe. It is important that the discussion of human rights be characterised by an understanding of cultural differences, as well as that it stands firmly by universally valid principles. One important part of the international political work must be to reach for reconciliation between peoples and former blood enemies.
If the human rights are to be strengthened, fulfilment of international responsibilities must be guaranteed. That is why the position of the UN must be protected and strengthened, as must the various international courts and legal systems within the UN.
In working to promote human rights the primary means must be positive persuasion, such as financial support, cultural co-operation, discussions and dialogues. Boycotts and sanctions in political, cultural and economic spheres can be used as ultimate means.
A bilateral dialogue on human rights should also be carried out between individual countries, providing an opportunity for a more in-depth discussion. The developmental co-operation should also be based on a respect for human rights. This places certain demands on the foreign aid both when it comes to how co-operation is structured and on the type of support. A rights-based humanitarian aid is central to the international work. That refugees, victims and the most vulnerable have a right to help and protection shall be the principal point of departure.
International organisations such as WTO, IMF, the World Bank and regional development banks must also place high demands in their operations on respect for human rights.
The relationship between the commercial sphere and human rights gains in importance through globalisation. This process increases the possibilities for shaping opinions and for distributing information to the favour of human rights. That is why it is important to reinforce global ethical codes for trade and industry. With the accelerating internationalisation it is no longer only the state that has responsibility for promoting and guarantee human rights. All individual persons and global actors, as well as both international organisation and multi-national companies, own a responsibility for the situation of their fellow human beings.
Chapter 5
A humane society – can solidarity and efficiency co-exist?
A GOOD SOCIETY can only be realised if the public economy functions well and is balanced. Historical experience shows that a market economy is the best way to create a good public economy. The collapse of the communist system has also demonstrated that a society without private ownership lacks a decisive motivation for positive stewardship. A market economy is based on the concept that individuals or groups in various co-operative forms are free to own, acquire and manage property and companies. This lends freedom of choice to people, as well as a channel for their creativity, thus shaping the basis for increased welfare and a solidary welfare policy.
The market economy's foundation in civil law lies in voluntary and frequently informal agreements between independent actors. Honesty and acceptance of personal responsibility are important building blocks. They improve the way in which the economy works by lowering the costs for buy and sell transactions and lead to greater efficiency. This is why Christian ethics play a vital role in achieving an efficient market economy.
However, market economy cannot by itself create a positive society, nor can it shape a reasonable income distribution alone. Good economic development presupposes high employment, high educational levels and an even distribution of resources as well.
A market economy must start with the stewardship principles, emphasising mankind's personal and common responsibility for one self, one's fellow humans, coming generations and the physical environment around us. This shapes a modest stewardship of the financial assets available and describes the goal of a long-term perspective for economic policies. For that reason an economy characterised by inflation and speculation, by irresponsibility and egoism is the exact opposite. As the IT creates an increasingly rapid information flow, the risk for ill-considered, short-term behaviour increases. The principles of stewardship must permeate the regulations controlling the economy and its supervisory agencies, as well as the awareness of the individual participants.
The stewardship principle does not imply passive preservation, but a responsible utilisation and refinement of assets. Economic development that creates resources needed to achieve a better living standard for all humans is an important task for economic policy making. However, economic development may not be based on short-term utilisation of either the labour force or the environment. A sustainable economic development can only be attained if responsibility for the environment and for the populations is an integrated part of the economic policy structure.
The economic community must understand that decisions should be made at the lowest possible workable level and accept the human need of small, proximate associations. This is why it is vital to listen to employees and to ensure that the working community is organised into small groups where responsibility and holistic thinking is encouraged while anonymity is counteracted. The welfare system should be designed to support families and individuals while promoting freedom of choice, variety and personal responsibility. Community planning should be characterised by a conscious movement towards a decentralised society.
In other words, a good society is founded on a market economy based on ethical principles and controlled by social and ecological consideration.
5.1 A social and ecologically sustainable economic development.
The goal for communal economics must be to create a living environment where all components are positive. Still, economic development should not be measured using narrow growth concepts. Rather the criteria should be growth across the total national fortune, including the environment and natural resources, the human resources, production capital and the nation's financial assets. Growth in this complex brings with it a material welfare growth only if consideration is taken of environmental impact and the effect on human health and capacity. The economic policies must promote a sustainable growth of the entire national fortune. Only in this way can the stewardship principle be realised and a true welfare develop.
An unregulated market economy risks destroying the environment. The reason is that certain natural resources could be used free or nearly so in spite of their great value. Environmental policies should be based on the principle that the polluter pays for the pollution. One example is that environmental fees should be levied for even the smallest discharge and even if lower limitations have been established. Means of economic control and support shall be used to create financial motivations for consumers and producers to act in an environmentally sound manner. Such an effort requires close co-ordination with the commercial community. Shaping a good living environment also requires that trade and environmental policies support each other.
The national accounts should be supplemented with environmental accounts, thus creating a better way of including them in economic policies. A separate environmental report system should be developed to supplement the economic reporting.
In order to contribute to a positive welfare for all, the market economy should be combined with socially responsible policies that provide everyone with comparable conditions as well as ensuring that the social safety net functions at all stages of life. The welfare policies should be general in that it should provide a basic security for everyone. The social insurance system should be designed so that everyone has a reasonable security during illness, unemployment, workplace injury and pension. There should be private insurance segments in order to avoid too great a share falling on the tax financed system. A social market economy calls for policies for income distribution aimed at helping those most in need of support and assistance within the principle of comparable prerequisites. The tax and grant system must be designed so that people are encouraged to use their own strengths and involvement to avoid support dependence.
Labour legislation should be designed to provide reasonable job security for employees. A high ambition level should pertain to laws and efforts relating to work environments.
Creating the conditions for ensuring that all persons have access to a job is a central task for the economic policies. This can only be achieved through a community that has good competition and balanced stabilisation policies. This is why a low inflation rate should be sought. One important means to attain this is an independent national bank with stated responsibility for controlling money politics towards maintaining a stable currency. Swedish saving must be high focusing both on private savings and on restrictive policy for public expenses.
A well functioning market economy presupposes effective competition, stable institutions and ethical behaviour. Absent these the market economy stands threatened.
A well functioning public sector is prerequisite for creating a good community for everyone regardless of income, age, sex or residence. The public sector working method shall avoid monopoly, utilise varied operational forms and promote decentralisation as much as possible. Increasing variety, stimulating the taking of initiatives and promoting efficiency require that private production of welfare service via non-profits, co-operatives and foundations must have the same conditions as those services produced by public agencies.
The primary task of politicians is to vouchsafe citizen interests. This means that evaluation, cost follow-up and quality control become important political tasks. Production of individual social service activities must be characterised by variety. It should be possible for individuals to choose who shall supply the authorised support. With the exception of the exercise of public authority, all official activities should be purchased competitively.
Our life style is one of the reasons for the expenses in the public sector. Efforts to prevent poor health and social problems would therefore reduce the pressure on public operations, bringing public expenses down at the same time as individual living standards rise.
5.2 Internationalisation.
Sweden's financial wellbeing has been attained through active participation in the international exchange of goods and services. This internationalisation of the economy is reinforced by such tendencies as the rapid developments in information and communications technology. Another contributing factor is that deregulation has created new conditions.
Markets have been interconnected to a greater extent than earlier through deregulation, new technology and a general tendency towards low inflation and lower taxes. Business and political decisions affect companies and individuals more rapidly than before. While internationalisation establishes limitations, it also creates now opportunities.
Politics designed for the modern economic environment must comprise both investments in education and measures to improve the environment through which knowledge becomes a business matter and is disseminated. This is why Sweden must be one of the leading investors in research and education. In addition, the playing rules must be constructed in such a manner that the country can take advantage of the knowledge capital already existent domestically.
The primary effect of internationalisation falls on entrepreneurship, investments and production localisation. People with a specific skill capital that can be used outside the country will, to a greater extent, be able consider working elsewhere. A tax rate that pushes people out of the country undermines the basis for entrepreneurship, employment and public activities.
In order to realise an ecological, social market economy it is necessary to co-operate on an international level. Such efforts counteract the risks of rapid capital movements and immense transnational companies that national legislation has problems enclosing. One part of this is the utilisation of a powerful consumer lobby that places demands on the social corporate behaviour, while another is a functioning co-ordination on economic, employment and welfare questions within the EU. The need for supranational solutions in certain areas joined to the importance of giving Swedish companies and consumers positive competitive conditions serves as a motivation for full Swedish participation in the European monetary union.
One part of the social market economy is the process of shaping international justice. Trade barriers and customs fees on exports from developing nations should be removed in order to stimulate development in the Third World. Sweden should work actively for free trade through international treaties. International organisations and the contents in those treaties that are signed must be informed by an ambition to provide all countries and regions comparable conditions for enjoying the opportunities inherent in free trade.
5.3 Taxation policies and justice.
The purpose for levying taxes is to finance public expenses, push economic development in a social and ecological direction and mitigate income spreading. At the same time, however, taxes can cause deterioration in how an economy functions and lead to unhealthy economic behaviour. The goal must be to have tax policy design that stimulates work, honesty, saving and entrepreneurship.
The tax system must be designed so that the individual can retain his or her own salary as far as is possible prior to the payment of supplementary grants and allowances. The goal is that persons who work fulltime shall be able to live on their earnings. Studies and continuing education must be profitable. Together, the tax, contribution and social insurance systems shall take into consideration the family situation and support responsibility while being seen as reasonable by all citizens.
In a global economy the tax system is exposed to competition, which is why taxes on capital must be competitive. Taxes on property, private fortune and other taxation should not impair the right to ownership, being designed according to accepted legal principles such as taxation according to ability and the equal treatment, for which reason the national property tax should be removed. The tax system should also contribute a positive entrepreneurial climate and promote the taking of individual responsibility. It is also important that the tax regulations be written as simply as possible in order to facilitate small business activity.
In principle the value-added tax (MOMS in Sweden) should be general. However, a high general VAT-rate will necessitate exceptions.
Taxation should be designed to benefit work, while counteracting the consumption of finite natural resources, the discharge of environmentally injurious substances and the existence of other environmentally damaging activities.
It is the responsibility of the government to support municipalities lacking the tax base needed to fulfil their legally required duties towards their residents.
5.4 Communications.
While the stewardship principle postulates duties toward fellow humans and the environment, it also includes responsibility to develop and manage our assets. For a country like Sweden with a profuse access to natural resources, with residents spread over a wide geographic expanse and with a developed trade that includes having persons and companies distributed world-wide it is essential to have well developed communication. Modern societies require rapid 'digital highways' to enable the whole country to have use of the new technologies and to be a leading actor in modern IT. For those reasons a far-reaching network of roads, railways, air connections and shipping, as well as reliable tele- and data communication systems form a vital prerequisite for regional balance, economic development and human contact.
The purpose with politics is to create the conditions needed to offer citizens and the business community in the whole country an efficient, secure and environmentally adapted communications system at the lowest possible cost to the community. In order to fulfil these goals the various communication systems must carry their societally related costs to the greatest extent possible.
The state shall be responsible for the development and infrastructure of the traffic system. However, the traffic itself ought to be operated competitively. The state shall accept responsibility for ensuring that the investment levels in the communication system infrastructure, such as for roads and railways, are maintained at a level that is high enough to promote economic development and regional balance in the long-term. The tax system and environmental fees shall be constructed so that they stimulate an effective communication system from community economy and environmental adaptation points of view.
The lorry is an indispensable part of the transport system. However, it is preferable that long-distance good transport be effected using environmentally adapted and energy efficient transport forms such as railways and sea freight, in co-ordination with air and land transports. A well-developed domestic airline system is necessary for a country the size and shape of Sweden. Free competition shall be the rule. However, the state shall have responsibility for ensuring that air connections motivated by regional considerations shall exist at reasonable cost to the passengers. Sweden's traditions as a seafaring nation shall be preserved and sea safety shall be prioritised.
The traffic system must be designed to be available to handicapped individuals.
Public transport.
In order to ensure that all persons can move around and to reduce the environmental impact of motoring, it is essential that there be a well-developed public transport system. Public transport using busses, trams, trains and subways shall be developed as attractive alternatives on a market characterised by competition and long-term playing rules. Safety, working environment and general environmental impact shall be part of the purchasing process in traffic areas.
The shift to environmentally adapted fuels, safety efforts, and service/quality development shall be stimulated in public transport. The public transport tariffs shall be constructed to promote use of public transport and good resource stewardship.
Traffic and the environment.
The wide-spread dependence on fossil fuels together with other discharge sources such as industry, agriculture and households constitute a global threat to the environment through increased release of greenhouse gases. In order to reduce the negative impact on the environment of motor vehicles it is necessary that energy efficient models be developed, as well as ones using non-fossil fuels. Exhaust gas emissions from all means of transport should be reduced to a minimum using modern technology and efficient controls. The fuels tax construction should stimulate the use of environmentally adapted fuels.
Traffic also has an impact on people's living environment through health-threatening releases, infringement on the natural settings, noise and accidents. These factors must be given great significance for infrastructure planning.
In order to distribute traffic better over time, as well as reduce crowding, the municipalities shall have the right to decide for themselves if they wish to levy anti-crowding fees on the automobile traffic.
Traffic and safety.
It is important that the community maintain its zero-vision for deaths and serious traffic injury. Traffic safety is not only the responsibility of those who design the traffic environment, the state and the municipalities, but also of the individual driver. Voluntary efforts shall be encouraged by the state. Speed limits shall be suited to environmental and safety aspects.
Driving while under the influence of alcohol or other drugs shall be prohibited on land, at sea or in the air. The police must have sufficient resources to carry out sobriety tests and to process violations. Stringent safety and environmental demands shall be made on transports carrying oil and other environmentally dangerous product on both land and sea.
Information technology (IT).
That people shall have a central position is the most important point of departure for IT policies. This calls for a positive attitude to the possibilities inherent in the new IT, while not forgetting the risks.
The goal should be to ensure that Sweden gains a leading position on the world market for IT products. For this to be possible, it is essential to encourage entrepreneurship, write long-term rules for IT companies, stimulate innovative thinking and promote an offensive utilisation of IT in the public sector. Individual integrity shall be assured during handling of personal information.
The expansion of modern telecommunication opens opportunities for decentralisation and flexibility. The state is responsible for regional political aspects of this effort, seeking to guarantee that all of Sweden can enjoy fully satisfactory tele- and postal service.
The worldwide Internet can contribute to much that is very positive for mankind. This includes increased democracy, increased accessibility to knowledge and information, as well as improved possibilities for individuals to maintain contact with each other. The democratic improvement is based on improvements in information accessibility. It will be easier to keep tabs on political promises, to stand pat against authorities and to carry out a dialogue with elected officials.
Medical services will improve through tele-medicine and by enabling the global distribution of research result via the Internet. New health care systems can also facilitate patient administration and provide more time for direct contact with patients.
Intelligent transport systems are constantly improving industrial logistics. This leads to better vehicle utilisation and to an IT inspired reduction in environmental impact. IT in the automobile can be used for licence control, to cut down on illegal driving and to prevent driving while under the influence.
One of the most important advantages of the Internet is the increase in communication possibilities for individuals.
The rapid technological development entices us to rush the democratic decision-making process. Time to think, reach out and interact is reduced. IT security is a critical factor. Societal gaps tend to increase as a result of IT in that differences in information and knowledge available to various individuals will increase. These variances can be reduced through investments in educational systems, continued skills development at work and a well-developed infrastructure throughout the country.
The information society can also create negative stress and performance anxiety for many. Information stress and new illness symptoms arise when technology is insufficiently adapted to human conditions. Ideologies that glorify violence, pornography and prostitution are examples of information that is communicated via the Internet. This is why the work with values and inculcation of standards in the family, at school and in the community as a whole is exceedingly important as a counterforce to all that destroys human value. Even the technology can to some extent be used to hinder the spread of illegalities over the net.
5.5 Entrepreneurship and the business community.
The good community and a solid welfare presuppose a competitive, differentiated commercial community. It follows then that a positive climate for small businesses must be created and maintained, a climate where individual person's ideas, creativity and entrepreneurship has an opportunity to flower. The small and medium companies that often are family operations must form the core of the business and industry policy development.
Personal initiative forms the base for new company formation. The community must co-operate actively in the creation of attitudes positive to entrepreneurship. For this reason it is important for the community to encourage initiative and creative urges, in part through the educational system and in part via a positive entrepreneurial climate.
The stewardship principle must serve as the point of departure for the political perspective on commercial ventures. Good management presupposes proximity to decision-making and sharing of responsibility. This is why a well functioning economy ought to be based on a large degree of personal ownership. A functioning commercial life also requires a market economy based on ethical principle and controlled by social and ecological consideration.
The governmental role in commercial life is to monitor that legislation and good ethics are maintained in the marketplace. It is vital that the rules established by the state are long-term. Furthermore, the state must accept the overall responsibility for ensuring that comparable conditions exist for various corporate structures and for entrepreneurship in all parts of the nation, treating neither small nor medium companies unfairly. Effective competition policies to counteract oligopoly, monopoly and unfair competition shall be implemented. Monopolies and limitations on competition may only exist in exceptional cases, such as for reasons of public health.
Politics relating to business and industry shall be financed with public monies in that it purposes to create good conditions for entrepreneurship in the whole country. Such politics shall focus on establishing rules for the commercial community. Direct corporate subsidies shall be rejected. The policies shall stimulate development and renewal of commercial life aimed at meeting changes in our surroundings. Bureaucracy and complex rules shall be simplified. All new laws must be vetted from a small business perspective.
The tax system shall be constructed so that profits can be generated and savings in the company is encouraged. Taxation shall promote access to venture capital for new and growing companies. Inheritance, gift and capital tax rules shall facilitate generational shifts in companies.
The state should promote new business formation by creating a positive climate for innovation, product and market development. Public organisations ought to participate in ensuring that risk capital is accessible, especially for small companies and in regions with weak captital formation and employment problems. It should be possible to take special measures to stimulate female entrepreneurship.
A functioning market economy calls for active, well-informed consumers and for effective, legal rules. A well-developed consumer information process is essential. Free, independent consumer organisation shall be encouraged. The state shall counteract confusing, discriminating and unhealthy advertising, TV-adverts directed at children, as well as other aggressive marketing methods.
Authorities set up to monitor the competition conditions and financial system must have good possibilities for fulfilling their tasks and thereby prevent unhealthy behaviours.
5.6 Labour market policies
The possibilities for participation in an active stewardship exists in working life as each person with different job descriptions use, preserve and develop human capacities and material resources. A good stewardship also calls for making use of everyone's unique characteristics, capacities and talents plus that they are given the opportunity for growing together with other individuals at a workplace. From this it can be seen that work is important for people's possibility to develop their identity.
Human value is often strongly tied to having a traditional job, a perspective that is both dangerous and wrong. It is dangerous in that someone who becomes unemployed feels worthless and wrong in that human value resides in the fact that he or she is human and in nothing else.
Human nature expresses a need to be able to associate with others, to take responsibility and to develop as a person. For those reasons active work and involvement are extremely important, regardless of whether it is in the form of an organised job or in some other meaningful chance to take responsibility for family, friends or other fellow humans.
Work has a special position in that it is an organised form of communal contribution that gives the individual opportunities to take responsibility for him or her self and for those closest. Working for a living also brings extensive opportunities for personal development, work comradeship and social contacts. Each person not given the possibility to participate in employment is a person who has been excluded from taking part in building the community.
Unemployment is a waste of human resources. This is why full employment is an important political goal. One prerequisite for this is that the competitive status of Swedish commercial organisations against the surrounding world be maintained. Long-term, stable economic policies linked to active labour-market policies are essential for creating a good community where everyone gets a chance to participate.
Personal and social problems are often the results of long-lasting, involuntary unemployment since all humans need to feel wanted and needed. A job is of greatest importance to most in maintaining good life quality. Economic policies should create the conditions for economic development and a dynamic commercial life. As employment increases, more people can take care of themselves and thereby gain control of their own lives. Increased employment also creates more resources to strengthen the budget and thereby vouchsafe the welfare system ensuring that those most in the need of the community's support can receive it. This is why the creation of new jobs is one of the most important questions in distributive politics.
Labour market policies must also be based in the subsidiarity principle, ensuring that what a lower level can clearly handle in a purposeful manner, shall not be taken over by higher levels. Labour market politics shall be subsidiary in that community efforts shall be supportive when needed without therefore damaging the ordinary labour market.
Strong, politically independent unions are an indispensable part of a democratic community. Their task is to preserve employee rights and interests, while creating efficient working relationships between employers and employees. Corporate democracy should be constructed so that both capital and work input justifies influence and a share in the decision-making process. The goal is a positive co-operation based on mutual trust between all who work at a company.
In order to create a salary structure that contributes to low inflation and to creating an internationally competitive commercial life, it is important that the Swedish salary negotiation system be decentralised. It should be created by the labour-market parties, maintaining a clear role distinction between them and the state. Governmental control of the salary structure in the form of income policies is not acceptable. Corporate profit-sharing systems for individuals shall be encouraged.
A well functioning education system that creates good conditions for developing competence throughout working life is of greatest importance in vouchsafing long-term employment. Continuing education shall exist and be encouraged to provide unemployed individuals with good chances for a job.
The employee shall have good possibilities for affecting his or her working schedule. Good practical, economical possibilities ought to exist allowing parents of small children to reduce their working hours. There should also be good chances for part-time work for those wishing it. Working conditions should be comparable to those in force for full-time employees. Retirement age should be flexible.
Active labour-market measures should have priority over passive cash payments. There must be strong countermeasures against long-term unemployment. There should be a well-developed apprentice system in order to ensure that young persons can gain professional and working life experience.
The government employment agency should be an active service organisation in the service of labour-market policies. Private employment agencies should be encouraged. The employment agencies must be active in seeking jobs in order to help older persons and long-term unemployed.
Job security for all employees is an overall goal. The Act on Security of Employment must be constructed so that a reasonable security for employees is created without therefore discriminating against new employment and re-entry into the labour market. Company closings and relocalisations shall be arranged so as to ensure that individual security is protected as much as is possible. Comparable basic social conditions shall apply throughout working life.
A general, obligatory unemployment insurance shall exist in order to guarantee a basic economic security for all who lose their jobs. The insurance should be financed via personal and employer contributions.
Much of the labour market is segregated by sex. There must be active measures to ensure a more even distribution between men and women. The same salary for comparable work and the same salary conditions for both sexes shall be established.
There shall be well functioning laws against all discrimination in work places. The state and municipalities should serve as good models when it comes to such steps as hiring handicapped individuals, older persons, immigrants and persons in need of rehabilitation. Mobbing in work places must be actively discouraged.
The working environment should be considered as early as during planning. Extensive effort must be expended on adapting facilities, machines and equipment, job descriptions, work speed and working hours to the needs and conditions of employees. Technology shall be subordinated to humans. Small units are recommended. Fees and taxes levied on companies shall be constructed so as to encourage a good working environment. Employees shall be given solid opportunities to influence over their working environment. The government shall have high ambitions in providing advice, support and controls for attaining an improved working environment. A well functioning worker protection system and a solid working environment shall take the physical and mental health of the employees into consideration. The safety representatives shall be offered training and good working conditions. There shall be investments in research, education and information regarding work-related medical questions, worker protection and other working environment questions.
5.7 Regional policies
All people regardless of where they live shall be able to enjoy the basic social rights offered by the society and be provided with reasonable conditions for making a living and develop their hometown. This requires active regional policies. One of the most important means for creating good prerequisites for developing the whole country is a well-developed infrastructure. Those local and regional conditions that exist in the form of natural resources and human skills shall be supported and encouraged.
Regional politics shall contribute to creating a good basis for commercial activities in areas with poor employment statistics, primarily through general stimulation measures. These steps can then be supplemented by specifically focused ones. The labour market can be expanded with rapid, effective communications and a developed educational system. Those in place, job commuting, distance work and human contact that promotes economic development are possibilities. New technology shall be applied that creates large opportunities for decentralisation of production and decision-making.
Democratic, dynamic and growth-oriented regional policies is best realised if those elected at a regional level are given the responsibility for planning the regional development as a whole.
The goal is for the whole country to survive and for each municipality to be a functioning community, one where people can have their basic needs for work and service fulfilled.
Since people living in sparsely populated areas often have poor public transport and long distances between work and service, some special form of compensation for the extra expenses ought to be paid.
Work should continue on trying to relocate government agencies and authorities outside the Stockholm region. In this way job opportunities will be spread around and the skill pool improved in the localities that receive a new authority. The institutions of higher learning are important for spreading knowledge and thus as support of the regional and local business community.
The system for inter-municipal income balancing must be a state system and be constructed so that the consequences of differences in tax base, population structure, geographic distance, climate and social conditions are evened out.
5.8 Farming and forestry, plus fishing and reindeer husbandry.
The stewardship principle shall govern the design of a secure food supply. Food production is a basic industry, one that must be cared for and developed. Agricultural policies should be constructed so as to create the conditions for proximity between producer and consumer, thus reducing the need for long-distance transports. The prudence principle points to a restrictive position regarding genetically modified foodstuffs.
From both a global and a national perspective it is essential in the long term that farming land in Sweden and the rest of Europe be used for farming or for other production that allows the land to be returned to farming without difficulty. And example of such use is for growing energy crops.
Healthy farming and forestry industries, as well as fishing and reindeer husbandry are central to the preservation of a living countryside. All also have great importance for employment in business that refine and sell raw materials. Economically sound family farms should even in the future form the base in Swedish agriculture, though part-time farming supplemented by other jobs can also be supported. It is essential that these enterprises enjoy conditions comparable to similar operations in other countries, in part through general good conditions for entrepreneurship and in part through the specific conditions for these industries have in Sweden.
The original meaning of the word culture is cultivation. It is vital to safeguard the cultural and environmental investment carried out by the agricultural industry. However, it is necessary to move on to more environmentally adapted, ecological cultivation methods. Sweden should take advantage of its excellent conditions for an environmentally adapted, safe production of biologically satisfactory foods. Sweden should also be active in pushing environmentally adapted agriculture in the EU.
Reindeer husbandry should be protected for its importance to the Sami culture and for employment and residence in the inland and alpine world of northern Sweden.
The Swedish fishing industry must be given the necessary conditions for economic health even in the future. The regional importance of a strong Swedish fishing industry cannot be over-emphasised. Many of those who live on the many islands along Sweden's coastline are directly or indirectly dependent on a functioning fishing industry. In order to guarantee the continued existence of these communities it is essential that steps be taken to preserve an economically sound fishing industry.
Fishing is an international concern where Swedish fishermen compete not only among themselves, but also with fishermen from other countries. In formulating the rules for our fishermen this fact must be taken into consideration.
Like all other uses of natural resources, the fishing industry must operate within the stewardship principle. The fishing must be ecologically sustainable and primarily be used to feed humans. Taking out too many fish benefits no one, rather causing the resource to disappear and the industry to die in the long-term.
Forestry and the related preparation industry have long been an important basic industry in Sweden. Overarching, long-term, sustainable rules must be developed in order for our forestry and forest-related industry to continue to exist, ones that promote both production and environmental goals. It is important that these goals have the same priority and dignity in shaping the overall forest policies.
Chapter 6
Tomorrow's society – consumed or sustained?
WHOEVER IS WORRIED about how the environment will appear in the future has good reason. Climate changes, the rapid deforestation, reduced fish catches, chemicals in the environment, regional water supply problems and euthrophication are all examples of non-sustainable development. Still, experience shows that negative trends can be turned around.
The sustainable development concept is often defined as development that satisfies the needs of today without jeopardising the possibilities for future generations to do so as well. This emphasis of the generational perspective means that this definition reflects well one of the basic principles of the Christian Democratic attitude towards the environment, namely what we call the stewardship principle. It states the human beings are stewards of, but not lords of creation. This gives us a special responsibility to act with respect for today's surroundings and on behalf of coming generations within a long-term, holistic perspective.
The stewardship principle applies to both personal resources and material values – the environment and natural resources. We must act in such a way as to enable us to turn over the results of our efforts with pride. This presupposes that we manage well, rather than consume finite resources and natural values irresponsibly. It also requires us to base our management on the principle of prudence – that if there is the slightest indication of threat to or irreversible damage to the environment, the greatest care is called for. Absence of scientific evidence may not be used as an excuse for postponing measures intended to prevent environmental destruction.
The stewardship does not call for a passive attitude, but focuses on development and refinement. Mankind can act on and affect nature, but must do it in a way that is both sustainable and careful. Even cultivation of land for the production of food has a strong effect on nature, but lies within the bounds of stewardship.
The relationship to animals shall be seen within the same stewardship in that they are treated with respect and consideration. Even if people and animals do not own the same value, this does not mean that animals lack value.
The personal and mutual responsibility are basic to the stewardship principle. As a rational being, humans are responsible for their actions. S/he can make conscious choices in order to manage both his or her own resources and the external ones of others. It is not possible to push this responsibility to others or to society in order to change life-style. The aspiration to consume fewer of the finite resources and energy, as well as the acceptance of a personal responsibility for closed cycle and waste handling are both necessary to the long-term survival of mankind.
At the same time individual decisions are not enough. What are needed are overall frames and conditions that enable and encourage a long-term, sustainable life-style. Environmental consideration must permeate all political sectors. Sustainable development presupposes an integration of ecology, economy and social concerns. Different controls of informative, financial and regulative nature must supplement each other and be used separately or together depending on the area of operations. Legal prohibitions and limit values, an ecologically influenced tax policy, environmental management systems, environmentally adapted purchasing and consumer education are examples of strategic instruments that must be used.
The substitution principle is also an important tool in that it calls for putting less dangerous substances in place of more dangerous ones.
A market economy policy based on the stewardship principle provides possibilities for advancing development towards ecological sustainability. The fact that people overuse certain environmental resources can in much be traced to failed market thinking. The expenses levied on the individual or company do not correspond to the total costs to the society. Indeed, often the resource use is seen as being free. However, if environmental value is made visible and the environmental costs are reflected in the price asked, then these factors can be considered in the decisions made by producers and consumers. This can be accomplished by maintaining the principle that the polluter pays and that taxation is levied more on the natural and environmental resources than on people's work. In addition it is necessary to supplement the traditional welfare concept calculated as GNP with environmental accounts thus making the link between economy and environment visible.
6.1 Natural resources and environment.
One of the greatest challenges of our time is to reduce the negative impact on nature to a level that nature can handle. Consumption of resources beyond the point where a sustainable withdrawal from the ecosystem is exceeded is an immense problem that is in conflict with the goal that coming generations should also be able to meet their needs.
The environmental debate was long dominated by worry over the possible exhaustion of finite resources. Even if this remains a large problem in certain contexts, experience has shown where access to finite raw materials are reduced, the situation is regulated by rising prices or by the discovery of new substance to replace the scarce ones. However, the same mechanisms do not exist when the environmental space is reduced. That is why the most serious problem is the lack of renewable resources. The increasing population and continued growth put immense pressure on access to pasture and cultivation land, on clean water and air, and on availability of fish. This happens through overuse and wrong utilisation, as well as through wastes and discharges in amounts that nature no longer can reduce leading to poisoning, acidification and climate changes.
Steps must be taken to halt discharges of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in order to counteract the greenhouse effect. Fossil fuels must be phased out from both the energy and the transport sectors. Renewable fuels should be encouraged through the tax system. Domestic production should be stimulated.
Development adapted to closed circle thinking must be applied in order to reduce the amount of waste. One way is through producer responsibility meaning that once they are given responsibility for the waste generated by their products the motivation increases for them to make products that can be disassembled and recycled. Waste treatment should focus on source sorting, recycling, reuse and composting of organic waste.
Western life styles comprise an enormous resource waste that lacks long-term sustainability. Research reports have shown that the global ecosystem is incapable of long-term maintenance of more than half a billion persons who live as we do. In order to maintain a high standard of living while making life more bearable for those who live in poverty today, our resource utilisation must become much more efficient. This requires a new and more environmentally adapted, resource efficient technology. Commerce is increasingly moving towards a dematerialization, meaning a focus on services and functions instead of products – companies define their business concept as selling the service 'clean washing', not selling washing machines. This way of thinking needs support from long-term, political control methods.
In order for production of increase while using fewer resources, it is necessary to find new motive powers in all parts of the economy. It must be profitable for people to accept responsibility, retrain themselves, to work and save. For companies it must be profitable to invest in production and to develop new technology in order to raise quality and reduce resource use.
An international perspective on the environment.
The most serious threats to the environment are global or super-regional. In this can be counted the greenhouse effect, ozone layer reduction, acidification and euthrophication, plus the spread of environmental poisons and heavy metals. Pollutant agents are spread in large scale and are not stopped by national boundaries. For this reason it is essential to establish a cross-border co-operation, something that is one of the most important tasks for the EU.
Through its great consumption and inefficient resource utilisation, the wealthy world is a threat to an ecological balance. Because of its poverty, the poor world is a threat to the ecosystem by placing it under great pressure through urbanisation and short-term use of primarily wooden products. The rich world has a responsibility for dealing with this situation via a fair trade policy and foreign aid at a respectable level. Sustainable development also calls for market economy and democracy. Environmental destruction has been greatest in those countries where plan economies were implemented. Transferable release rights should exist within the EU.
The rich countries must also ensure that their poor cousins receive the benefits of the technological developments so that they can avoid many of the erroneous measures carried out by the rich world. A transfer of environmentally adapted technology is essential.
6.2 Nature preservation, biological variety and animal protection.
There are many reasons why it is important to vouchsafe biological variety. This variety is one of the prerequisites for the long-term productive capacity of the ecosystem. Variety is also important on a purely practical level since many of the land-based industries use different species, as do the pharmaceutical and energy industries. Nor can we foresee today what all possible new, valuable uses might be. Beyond the practical, there are purely aesthetic values in the form of cultural settings and the availability for leisure and recreation activities. Finally there is an ethical perspective in that coming generations have an equal right to hear the nightingale sing and to know its name.
The national parks are vital for the preservation of our national natural heritage for coming generations. Mankind has a need of natural experiences for relaxation and wellbeing, something many of the naturally lovely and unique park settings can supply. Having high quality nature areas near the cities is equally important and the right to public access should be preserved to ensure the proximate access to open-air life to everyone. Even small greenswards within the cities fill an important function for people's health and recreation. Protecting unplanned surfaces is also important. Parks satisfy certain needs while wilder natural areas fill others.
Preserving biological variety necessitates reserves of various type, as well as great consideration for the natural aspects of the forest and farming landscapes. In this the property owners are a great resource, especially when it comes to preserving the cultural landscape.
Wetlands need preservation and if necessary re-creation and forests need to be protected in reserves of sufficient size to preserve the biological variety. Shore and biotope protection must be vouchsafed and the alpine forests should be given special protective rules. But it is not enough only to protect nature. Lakes and waterways are despoiled by air pollution and ground run-off. International agreements are needed in order to limit discharges and effluents that lead to acidification and euthrophication.
Mankind has a responsibility to protect all living creatures. This means that mankind must care well for those animals s/he has in care and to ensure that these animals are allowed as natural a life as is possible. The point of departure for mankind's relationship to animals ought to be to avoid stress, pain and injuries to the animals to the extent this is possible. Persons involved in animal husbandry should also promote animal health and should take the animals' physiological and behavioural needs into consideration. Changes in their genetic material accomplished through genetic engineering and aimed at changing their appearance or ability to reproduce should not be allowed. All considerations relating to operations using genetic technology should be carried out under the prudence principle. Unnecessary suffering shall not be allowed and animal research shall only be used in extreme exceptions. Long-distance animal transport shall be avoided as much as possible and stringent rules for treatment of animals during transport shall be issued.
Mankind's responsibility even includes wild animals. These too must be treated with consideration of their need for a natural life.
6.3 Hunting, fishing and game preservation.
Hunting, fishing and game preservation are parts of the preservation of biological variety. In addition to providing many persons with an important part of their recreation and open-air activities, these activities correctly done are a clear example of an applied stewardship of natural resources. Game preservation is important to avoid illnesses, traffic accidents and damage to cultivated products and forests. With the principle of support for private property rights and the generational experience with private ownership of forest and farming land as warrant, there should exist a link between land ownership and hunting/fishing rights. At the same time it is important that the public sector ensures that non-landowning hunters are given access to hunting on publicly owned land.
In order to ensure that Sweden will continue to have healthy strains, our four large predators, namely bear, lynx, wolverine and wolf, should be protected. A long-term, sustainable predator policy should be developed in collaboration with the country populations involved.
6.4 Genetic engineering
Modern genetic engineering is the one of the most powerful instruments for change that mankind has received. Properly managed it can promote the common good and solid societal development. Developments are moving apace when it comes to genetic engineering for plants and animals. Since all life has the same building blocks there is also an immense potential for affecting human cells and therefore human life. This opens up possibilities for such advancements as wholly new medical treatments, but it also brings with it completely new ethical dilemmas. This is nothing new. There have existed ethical problems in this area long before the modern genetic engineering came into being, such as in traditional breeding. The differences are in part the speed and strength of the new instruments and in part the capacity for creating genetic combinations that would never have appeared naturally. For those reasons, any mistakes and unforeseen effects can have much larger consequences than before. It is important the progress is extremely careful and that laws be written that require the consideration of ethical questions.
The new technology can be an important means for feeding a growing world population, as well as for mitigating much human suffering. Genetic technology opens fantastic possibilities, but also presents problems that point to the need for great prudence. There is a risk that gene modified crops that have been manipulated to make them resistant to certain biocides can cross-fertilise with wild relatives and form hybrids, with ecological results that are difficult to predict. Should genetically modified crops ever be cultivated in the open, the benefit in the genetic modification must be carefully weighed against the risk of spreading in nature. Knowledge of the ecological effects of genetically modified organisms is very limited. Planting such organisms in open fields should not be allowed except in trial cultivation requiring permits.
Plant and animal manipulation can also contribute to diminishing the genetic capital by knocking out existing species and families. Such genetic depletion results in lesser variation to build on. We have no exact information as to the conditions will exist in the future for which reason as broad a genetic base as possible is type of insurance against an unknown future. Based on the stewardship principle, the EU and Sweden ought to be extremely restrictive in allowing the introduction of genetically modified food.
It should be possible for consumers to avoid products containing genetically modified organisms. Clear marking with the possibility for control and follow-up must exist.
One prerequisite for the biotechnical industry to grow and to create value for humanity is the capacity for protecting the ownership of discoveries. Patents and plant refinement rights must exist in order to promote openness, research, development and investment. The investment costs are high and the risk for copying great. What is needed is a sole right to use an intellectual invention, not owning life, single genes or organisms, plants or animals.
For these reasons it is important to maintain the basic difference between discovery and invention. Patent shall not be granted for pure discoveries such as of a gene, a gene sequence or an enzyme. In a broad sense what existed before research and genetic technology is part of the common cultural heritage. However, it must be possible to receive a patent on a modified gene, gene sequence or enzyme that are part of a new biotechnical process or product. The ruling criteria shall be novelty, invention singularity and industrial utility. A patent on such microbiological processes, that is on the method itself and on products are basic in this context.
Technology and ethics may not be separated. All research and biotechnical activity, including patent and plant refinement rights must primarily purpose to support mankind's best interests, while being derived from and respecting the absolute, inviolate value of all human beings. Neither mankind nor the environment may be threatened.
The question of genetically modified food may not remain a question reserved to national politics. There must be means for the municipal public purchasing process to choose ecological alternatives, per definition free of genetic modification, in order to safeguard the supply of safe foodstuffs.
6.5 Energy
Sweden's energy supply should be ensured through long-term, conscious energy policies with fixed playing rules and where domestic, renewable energy sources and fuels form a growing segment. The negative effect on health, climate and environment must be as small as possible, which is why investments in biofuel based heating fuels, wind power, solar energy, and small-scale waterpower should be supported. The Swedish nuclear plants should be phased out of the energy system as it is replaced by renewable energy. Energy taxes and environmental fees should be constructed taking the surrounding world into consideration. The aim shall be to create a system that minimises environmental impact and ensures access to cheap energy created using safe and secure methods.
The goal then is the creation of an ecologically sustainable energy system without drastic price changes, power shortages and other significant strains on welfare and employment. In order for this to be possible there must be large investments in energy research and energy technical development.
A free energy market leads to increased competition and resulting lower prices. Unfortunately this lead to less interest for saving energy. However, aware consumers will have greater opportunities for choosing energy and electricity produced using more environmentally adapted technology. This, in turn, will move developments forward. Other changes are also necessary in order to give energy saving measures a greater distribution. Investments aimed at reduced energy use must be profitable and may not result in higher property taxes.
6.6 Indoor environment.
The indoor environment is vital to human wellbeing. Much time is spent indoors – at home, at day-care, in the schools and at work. Poor ventilation, new and untested building and decoration materials, moisture and fungus damages all contribute to problems with indoor climate.
The large increase in allergies and other over-sensitivity can in much be traced to poor indoor air, even if other factors are also important. The allergy increase is also tied to a growing problem with moisture and fungi. This is why there must be continuous control of moisture, fungi, radon, electromagnetic fields, ventilation and the like.
There are immense public costs involved with renovations of housing and public places contaminated radon, PCBs and other substances. The municipal authorities must make careful use their permit rights to ensure that new housing and other facilities are ecologically adapted to avoid problems.
Health certified housing is one way to come to terms with indoor environment problems. There is also need of an environment and health evaluation system for building materials, building methods and buildings themselves, the results of which could be used as documentation for describing the effects on a building's ecological sustainability. Various questions of responsibility should be clear and there should be a law governing product responsibility for housing owners.
Noise is an environmental problem that affects both living and working environments. Many leisure facilities also have high noise levels, often resulting in hearing loss. For these reasons it is necessary to set allowable limits low and to carry out controls to ensure compliance.
Appendix
Glossary
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A |
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act of succession |
fundamental law regulating who acceeds to the throne |
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adequate |
that which answers established requirements sufficiently; suitable, satisfactory |
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administration of justice |
the work at the courts maintaining the legal system in the society |
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adult education |
general education programs for adults, often implemented in the framework of an educational or non-profit association. |
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aesthetic |
artistic, tasteful |
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alternate (community) service |
service within the defence establishment for those who refuse military service as a matter of conscience; a suspended sentence which, if the person sentenced so agrees, can be combined with a set number of hours of unpaid community service. |
|
alternative medicine |
various methods for treating illness or injury instead of or in addition to standard medical practice |
|
amoral |
lacking moral base |
|
anarchism |
the ideology that represents anarchy; see anarchy |
|
anarchy |
condition absent a controlling power, lawlessness |
|
anonymity, right to |
the right to remain anonymous when, for example, leaving information to mass media |
|
apprentice program |
upper secondary level (high school) vocational program with a practical focus and actual practice at commercial premises |
|
autonomy |
independence |
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B |
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basic values |
(in this context) the point of departure in terms of values |
|
basic values |
system of values such as outlook on mankind, solidarity, freedom and truth which stands or which one believe ought to stand as the basis for a society or other community |
|
bilateral |
comprising two partners, usually sovereign states |
|
biofuel (based) |
biological fuel such as straw, energy forest and forest residues. See also fossil fuel. |
|
biotechnology |
technology utilising biological processes to make raw materials such as antibiotics |
|
biotope protection |
protection and preservation of whole living environments (biotopes) that offer suitable conditions for those plants and animals living there. |
|
boycott |
refusal to concern onself with something or someone; a form of blockade. |
|
burden of proof |
duty to prove a state of things |
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C |
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capital formation |
process gathering real capital, such as machines and buildings |
|
capitalistic |
that which is defined as economic systems based on private ownership of means of production in a market economy |
|
capital movement |
transfer or movement of larger financial assets |
|
capital placement |
management of financial assets such as funds and stocks |
|
capital tax |
tax on capital, acquisition of capital or yield on capital, such as dividends or interest. |
|
cardinal virtue |
one of the four basic virtues – justice, prudence, temperance and fortitude; more generally used about a very important virtue. |
|
care chain |
several co-ordinated care institutions, including patient information and patient training, intended to ensure suitable examination, diagnostics, treatement and rehabilitation. |
|
Catholic social theory |
the official Roman Catholic view on how society should be constructed; Christian ethics applied to social conditions. |
|
CDI |
Christian Democratic International. Organisation comprising Christian Democratic partys world-wide |
|
centralisation |
concentration of operations to one place |
|
citizen witness |
(civilian) person who attends a police interrogation in order to certify that the process has been correct, such as that no illegal methods are used |
|
civil defence |
civil defence comprises all non-military community activity to be carried out during war. In peace the civil defence comprises such activities as are carried out to strengthen society's capacity to oppose attacks and handle catastrophes. |
|
civil disobedience |
breaking a law in order to change it |
|
civil resistance |
resistance or opposition using non-violent methods, usually against a physically superior opponent |
|
civil rights |
laws governing the relationships between individuals and/or combinations/associations. Opposite of laws governing public bodies and relationships (state, municipality, etc.) |
|
civil society |
collective concept for those combinations, associations and organisations that exist apart from the state and other public bodies within a democratic society |
|
class struggle |
conflict between various groups of citizens based on differences in financial conditions |
|
closed circle |
turnover of natural resources |
|
code of conduct |
rules for acceptable behaviour |
|
codify |
writing laws based on earlier, unwritten rules or prevailing practice, that is on what is normally done |
|
collective |
a group of persons seen as a unit instead of as individuals, commonly used in areas such as housing or traffic |
|
collectivism |
way of thinking that sees the common weal as more important than individual interests |
|
commercialisation |
doing something to an object as part of a profit oriented business operation |
|
community founded on the rule of law |
society founded on law and order |
|
community service |
see alternate service |
|
competence |
sufficient capacity; qualification; legal right to decide something |
|
competence, area of |
area of responsibility, such as for an authority or a person |
|
competition policy |
politics that counteract various forms of market monopolies or oligopolies. See monopoly and oligopoly. |
|
compulsory redemption |
see expropriation |
|
condition |
prerequisite, prior requirement |
|
confessional |
that which relates to a religious creed |
|
conservative class society |
society in which special advantages for certain groups remains, such as in Czarist Russia where a small group of people possessed great privilege and material assets through birth |
|
constitute |
(in this context) comprise the essential facet of something |
|
constitution |
a collection of basic rules describing that country's governmental principle and how governmental power is to be implemented. Can be unwritten or written as a special law called fundamental law or constitution. |
|
constitutional court |
a court of law that tries whether laws and regulations are in agreement with the fundamental law or other, superior law. |
|
constitutional monarchy |
governmental form where the powers of the monarch are limited by the fundamental law to mainly representational duties |
|
consumer society |
society where consumption is a goal itself; a 'throw-away' society |
|
contempt |
refusal to abide by the law or a court order |
|
convention |
see treaty |
|
co-operative |
operations owned by and run for the benefit of its members, co-operative undertaking |
|
corrective |
means for straightening something out |
|
cost efficient |
an action whose result corresponds well to the expectations and financial resources committed. |
|
cost follow-up |
continuous study of the financial results of a certain operation |
|
critical rationalism |
(in this context) critical ability to decide what is right and what is wrong in various choices |
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D |
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debt cancellation |
removing debts from accounts |
|
decentralisation |
division and/or spreading of such as power or ownership |
|
decision-making authority |
the right to make decisions within a certain field |
|
dematerialisation |
services and functions become more important than goods and products |
|
denomination |
association or organisation for exercising religious beliefs |
|
depression |
(in this context) hard economic times |
|
deregulation |
that the state or another decision-making body abolish regulations in order to create better use of resources and stronger competition |
|
diametrical |
completely opposite |
|
dictatorship |
a society where all political power is held by an absolute ruler or by a small number of persons. Opposite of democracy. |
|
digital highways |
metaphor for the large systems for rapid transmission of information using data and telephone networks |
|
discrimination |
unfair special treatment of individuals or groups |
|
dynamic |
(in this context) energetic, decisive |
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E |
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ecologic market economy |
market economy that takes the environment into account |
|
economic crime |
such as tax-dodging, or black market sales |
|
ecosophism |
a school of philosophy that believes that all living plants and creatures are interconnected and have an intrinsic value. That part of nature which has not been affected by mankind is in ecological balance. This is why mankind should not seek to influence or effect nature. |
|
elitism |
the attitude that those who "know best" should decide over others; favouring an elite in the society |
|
empathy |
(capacity for) entering into another persons feelings or experiences |
|
energy crops |
plants cultivated to serve as raw materials (fuel) for energy production |
|
enlightenment |
the latter half of the 1700s when enlightenment philosopy set the tone, especially in France. The concepts are characterised by a strong belief that human beings are controlled by sense impressions, not by inborn ideas; for that reason, he or she is shaped by experiences and social surroundings. The enlightenment philosophy was often in conflict with the church and the state as the latter two were seen as autocratic. |
|
entrepreneur |
someone who creates a new business operation |
|
environmental accounts |
information system akin to national accounts that describes the relationship between environment and economy in a systematic way. Provides documentation for cost calculations for environmental measures, analyses of environmental and financial policies, as well as indicators of environmental conditions and a sustainable development. |
|
environmental fees |
financial control method for limiting environmental pollution; fee for release of such substances as sulphur and nitric oxides. |
|
environmental guarantee |
something that guarantees that established environmental demands are met |
|
enzyme |
substance that affects biochemical reactions in organisms without being changed thereby. |
|
EPP |
European People's Party. Joint action organisation for the Christian Democratic and conservative parties in Europe. |
|
equality before the law |
the principle of equal treatment before the law
|
|
establishment right |
the right to start new companies or operations |
|
ethics |
that branch of philosophy concerned with human character and conduct; the science of morals |
|
(code of) ethics |
a collection of ethical standards and rules |
|
ethnicity |
being part of a certain ethnic group |
|
ethnic |
what describes, belongs to or is characteristic of a certain ethnic group |
|
euthrophication |
adding too many nutritional substances to land or water, especially nitrogen or phosphorous which cause algal blooms and rapid overgrowth |
|
evidentially founded |
that which is based on proof |
|
existential angst |
condition of not being able to find any meaning in existence |
|
existential questions |
questions concerning or decisive for mankind's existence |
|
exploitation |
ruthless utilisation |
|
expropriation |
the legal, but proscribed right of a state or municipality to confiscate someone's property against payment, to take over someone's land through compulssory sale for use for a common purpose such as road construction, hospital or school. |
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F |
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fascism |
anti-democratic, nationalistic ideology that promotes the concept of a strong leader and a strong state. Fascism is intimately tied to the movement led by Mussolini in Italy before and during World War 2. Today it is used a general indication of conservative ideologies on the right. |
|
feudal society |
a class-conscious, hierarchic, medieval governmental system based on mutual oaths of allegiance; undemocratic order, but strongly decentralised. |
|
financing principle |
(in this context) the principle that governmental decisions that increase or decrease expenses at municipal level shall be adjusted by increasing or decreasing governmental subsidies |
|
form of government |
description of how a state is structured and governed, such as monarchy/republic, democracy/dictatorship; as set out in the fundamental law (see constitution) |
|
fossil fuel |
fuels extracted from rock or earth deposits. The economically most important are coal, oil and natural gas. See biofuels. |
|
free trade |
international trade without customs or other barriers |
|
fuel tax |
tax on motor fuels |
|
fundamental law |
See constitution; a collective name for the instrument of government, the act of succession, the freedom of speech act and the freedom of the press act. |
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G |
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general prevention |
effect on the general public's conception of justice, the preventive/deterrent effect on the general public; see individual prevention |
|
generate |
causes something to happen |
|
genetic engineering |
collective name for all techniques used to study, transfer or modify the inherited genome. The technology makes it possible to insert genes normally absent in the receiving organism. |
|
genetic material |
organic matter that controls an individual's development from fertilised egg to fully grown individual; the sum total of all genes in a cell. |
|
genetic sequence |
genetic sequence or the base-pair order in DNA. (building elements in the chromosomes of living cells. |
|
genetically modified |
a change in the genetic structure of an organism carried out by genetic engineering (genetically modified organism = GMO). |
|
gimme-gimme mentality |
single-minded focus on material welfare |
|
globalisation |
world-wide financial, cultural and political intraconnections made possible in much by IT |
|
government |
government, parliament, and the various departments and authorities |
|
greenhouse gas |
gas occurring in the atmosphere that contributes to global warming |
|
green tax shift |
lowering taxes levied on work while raising taxes on environmentally dangerous emissions and the like with a matching amount. |
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H |
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health evaluation |
description and study of the impact on health following the construction of such objects as buildings. |
|
high cost limitation |
individual protection against high costs in connection with purchases of medicine, aids or hospital care. The protection means that the amount an individual must pay over a year is usually limited. |
|
Hippocrates |
Greek teacher, ca 460-370 BC, called the father of medicine |
|
humanism |
classical educational ideal focusing on such areas as rhetoric, ethics, politics history. A system that emphasizes human value and ability to develop by acquiring culture. |
|
humanities, the |
arts subjects (philosphy, history, language) or areas. |
|
humanitarian |
characterised by respect for human dignity and basic rights. |
|
humanitarian aid |
grants and aid in emergency situations and long-term crises, usually in relation to natural catastrophes and armed conflicts. |
|
humanitarian intervention |
using military means to get involved in another country's internal concerns in order to prevent serious crimes against human rights. |
|
hybrid |
plant or animal that has been created by crossing different species with different genetic make-up. |
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I |
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idea party |
political party that bases its positions on certain conceptions or ideas, as opposed to an interest party whose purpose is to vouchsafe the interests of a certain group. |
|
ideologically based |
guided by ideological considerations
|
|
illness |
illness indication in a person that can be observed and possibly measured by a physician during an examination |
|
IMF |
International Monetary Fund whose purposes include monitoring the international system of payments. |
|
impact analysis |
analysis of the results of a decision |
|
impact description |
description of how a decision affects people, the environment and other factors |
|
impact ethics |
theory stating that it is possible to decide whether an action is right based on the consequences (utilitarianism), as opposed to deontological or duty ethics stating that certain actions may not be carried out even if the result is better than the alternatives. |
|
incentive |
motivation, something that stimulates a certain action |
|
income distribution |
that part of politics that deals with how community resources should be distributed among the population |
|
indication |
situation that suggests a certain relationship |
|
individual
prevention |
the preventive effect of the punishment level on the person who has been punished intended to stop recidivism. See general prevention. |
|
inflation rate |
average price increase in an economy with an effect on monetary value |
|
informant rights |
right protected in the fundamental law providing that information can be given to the media without limitation. It also states that the authorities may not seek to identify the informant. |
|
infrastructure |
system of communications and services as backing for military, commercial and other operations. |
|
information technology |
study of information technology (IT). The term is often used instead of the term 'information technique', that is computer technique and telecommunication working together. |
|
income distribution |
salary differences |
|
innovation |
invention, new (technical) discovery |
|
inopportune |
that which is inconvenient or badly-timed |
|
institutional ownership |
when the state, municipality, fund or other institution is owner. As opposed to direct ownership when a private person is owner. |
|
instrument of government |
the specific section of the Fundamental Law that describes and sets the governmental structure |
|
integration |
(in this context) the process that enables persons from different ethnic groups to live together. |
|
integrity |
(in this context) inviolable domain, inner moral stature and authority; ability to act according to one's own conscience. |
|
international law |
system of laws that regulate the rights and responsibilities between sovereign states. |
|
internationalisation |
increase of contacts and co-operation of all types across national boundaries. |
|
IT-war |
For example: to use the Internet to damage or destroy a country's technical infrastructure. |
|
IVF |
In vitro-fertilisation or test tube fertilisation; artificially accomplished fertilisation. |
|
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J |
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|
judicial review |
(in this context) the right of Swedish law courts to determine if a law agrees with the fundamental law or not. |
|
judicial system |
collective name for the authorities dealing with legislation and maintenance of law |
|
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K |
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knowledge demanding |
operation where high knowledge level is decisive |
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L |
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|
laissez faire liberalism |
a school of thought that believes the state should not interfere in commercial life. Companies ought to take care of themselves without regulations. |
|
land-based industry |
usually refers to farming, forestry, reindeer management, plus commercial fishing |
|
law and order |
the system that protects the individual against arbitrary exercise of power, thus ensuring that each citizen enjoys freedom and protection |
|
legal positivism |
see positivist legal tradition |
|
legal system |
adjoined system of laws |
|
legal traditions |
a well established, dominant way of looking at law and order |
|
legitimate |
recognized by the law; lawful, authorized |
|
life philosophy |
a consistent way of thinking that answers the larger questions, mankind's basic questions about the meaning of life, etc. |
|
logistics |
science that seeks methods for ensuring that the right material arrives at the right place at the right time |
|
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M |
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macro- |
in large scale |
|
Magna Charta |
declaration of freedom and rights King John of England was forced to sign in 1215 and which limited royal powers; has been interpreted as an admission of right to protection against oppression by the crown. |
|
market economy |
financial system marked by free competition where supply and demand govern production and prices |
|
materialism |
school of thought claiming that only the material and/or the secular truly exist |
|
materialistic |
attitude based on some form of materialism; see same |
|
means of control |
collections of laws, ordinances, tax and fee regulations intended to affect societal development in a certain direction |
|
medical competence |
the level of medical training or experience needed for a certain position or assignment |
|
method patent |
sole right to a method for making a product |
|
migration policies |
means used for handling population movements within and between countries; Swedish migration policy includes questions relating to refugees, immigrants, integration and returnees. |
|
micro- |
in small scale |
|
microbiology |
science studying organisms that are invisible to the naked eye |
|
military materials capability |
the ability and resources to satisfy the materials need of the armed forces. |
|
monopoly |
situation where one company has a position that enables it to carry out economic activity without competition |
|
moral society |
a society where values are strong, vital and important |
|
multi-lateral |
something that involves more than two parties, normally states. |
|
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N |
|
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|
national wealth |
assets less debts for all societal sectors |
|
national accounts |
national accounts comprise and describe the financial activities and development of our country as an account system with supplementary tables |
|
natural rights |
ethical and legal standards based on the natural order as they appear in human nature and are understandable by the human mind |
|
neutrality |
impartial, not taking a position for either party in conflicts and the like |
|
non-custodial treatment |
non-institutionalised correctional treatment |
|
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O |
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|
obligatory student association |
obligation for students at universities and institutions of higher learning to belong to the student association |
|
occupancy form |
Sweden currently has three forms – right of tenancy, co-operative flats or houses, and private homes. |
|
oligopoly |
market or pricing structure with only a few sellers. See monopoly |
|
operational mode |
way to run an operation |
|
optimal |
the best possible or the most beneficial |
|
organ donation |
donating one's own organs for transplantation into another person or for research |
|
OSCE |
Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe |
|
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P |
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|
pantheistic |
philosophy characterised by the concept that everything is part of the essence of God |
|
PCB |
polychlorinated biphenyls; organic compounds with very low degradeability; poisonous for water-based organisms, causing reproductive problems in fish and marine mammals. |
|
personalism |
philosophy claiming absolute, inviolable value for each person. In addition, being a person means being a rational individual, being morally aware and owning a natural need for companionship. |
|
pilot |
guide |
|
planning decision |
municipal decision based on the Planning and Building Act containing rules concerning planning land, water and building. |
|
plan economy |
economic system where a central authority make all decisions regarding the production of an entire nation. |
|
planning process |
the process leading to a planning decision |
|
pluralism |
a society in which different groups preserve their own customs;
ethnic- and opinion-multiplicity |
|
polity |
manner in which a country is governed, such as democracy |
|
positivist legal tradition |
the judicial view that only the established law and therefore only a country's legislation has a morally binding authority. See natural rights and legal positivism. |
|
potential |
ability, capacity, resources, latent possibilities |
|
prenatal diagnosis |
medical examination of a pregnant woman to discover possible fetal deformations or illness. |
|
preventive |
guarding against, forestall |
|
primary |
the very first; fundamental |
|
principal |
whoever has the main responsibility for an activity or institution. |
|
principle of human values |
the principle that every person has an inviolable, unique and, in relationship to other persons, an equal value |
|
principle of public access |
the right to public insight into and control of the activities of public authorities through citizen access to their documents |
|
prioritize |
give priority or preference |
|
price policy |
politically controlled prices, usually through so-called selective purchase taxes, such as excise taxes on alcohol or energy |
|
proceed (against) |
(in context) take steps against an action such as a crime |
|
processing industry |
industry where raw materials are processed or refined to a product. |
|
producer responsibility |
that the person who produces a product stands responsible for any future injury or for the waste the product causes. |
|
productivity |
the relationship between result and production factors used, such as the number of mobile telephones made per hour worked. |
|
product patent |
recognized sole right to use a product invention |
|
profit sharing system |
the possibility for employees to earn monies above their regular salary by gaining a share of the company's profits should certain goals be reached or if the company is going especially well. |
|
proportional |
adjusted in relation to size or number |
|
prudence |
capacity for critical judgement in choosing between right and wrong in various choice situations. The foremost of the four classical cardinal virtues. |
|
psychological defence |
measures taken to rise the resistance to and reduce the effects of psychological warfare; the ability to withstand difficult strains in society and by extension to retain faith in a democratic society |
|
psychosomatic illness |
illness based on difficulties with trust and faith in other persons and in their good intentions, often in connection with corporate closings, notice of termination, poorly motivated reorganisations and the like. |
|
public administration |
the administration of a national or municipal activity |
|
public service |
public service radio- and TV operations run on assignment from the government |
|
purpose paragraph |
the general goals and purposes of a law |
|
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R |
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reform |
implement a change in order to improve something |
|
reformer |
someone who wants to implement social reforms without revolution |
|
regulating |
controlling |
|
rehabilitation |
rehabilitation of an ill or handicapped person to everyday and/or working life. |
|
relativize |
deny the existence of any absolute truths |
|
renewable energy |
energy extracted from sources that are part of a natural closed cycle, such as sun, wind and water. |
|
rent controls |
regulations covering rentals |
|
renaissance |
(in this context) rebirth, a new golden age |
|
representative democracy |
political system in which individuals elected by the people represent the citizens, such as through political parties. As opposed to direct democracy where the entire population participates in all decisions. |
|
restrictive |
limiting, restraining |
|
resource efficiency |
efficient use of natural resources ensuring that the taking out of non-renewable resources does not increase |
|
revision |
change after a thorough run-through; examination of bookkeeping, reporting and administration of a company, association or public organisation. |
|
respite |
time to consider before doing something |
|
rhetoric |
eloquence, public speaking |
|
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S |
|
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|
|
salary structure |
process through which salaries are set, often between employers and unions |
|
sanction |
(in this context) some form of punishment, such as community service, jail, fines or probation |
|
scientific community |
the community comprising all scientists |
|
security of tenure |
legal protection against forced removal of a tenant from a rental property |
|
segregation |
separation of sections of the population based on differences such as race. |
|
secrecy |
guard against the discovery of something in order to protect a person or organisation, especially the state |
|
secularisation |
process through which the importance of religion is weakened in the society and in the awareness of the general public; more formally it means that the power and control by the church or religion over public institutions is reduced. |
|
separation of powers |
division of public power between different bodies, such as the executive, legislative and judicial; division of power between different levels, such as municipality, region and state. |
|
sex segregated |
divided by sex |
|
social market economy |
market economy with social responsibility |
|
solidarity |
involvement and responsibility beyond self-interest |
|
source sorting |
sorting waste at the source, such as at the households |
|
special property development |
(in this context) legislation enabling the building of new structures on top of already existing ones and enabling individual ownership of flats in apartment buildings. |
|
speculation |
acquisition and sales of such as currencies, properties and securities mainly to earn money |
|
stabilization policy in balance |
situation with full employment, plus an even, high growth without inflation |
|
staff person |
the person, that part of a municipality or of a company that carries out a certain service for one or more of the municipal residents. |
|
statecraft |
the art of leading a country in a positive manner |
|
stewardship |
responsible vouchsafing and utilisation of resources. Covers both one's own personal possibilities and those of the surrounding nature. |
|
structural injustice |
laws, regulations or habits that create a situation where certain groups or persons in a society are treated unfairly, such as by discrimination of women on the labour market |
|
structural change |
thorough change, such in laws, regulations or habits or in the way that businesses organize their operations |
|
subsidiarity principle |
the principle that a task should be completed at the lowest possible level suitable to the purpose and that superior instances have an obligation to support the inferior in carrying out its task, such as that the state or municipality should not subsume a family's responsibility for caring for its children, but support the parents in fulfilling this responsibility. |
|
subsidiary |
support without unnecessary control |
|
substitution principle |
rule stating that dangerous substances like chemicals should always be replaced by a less dangerous one when possible |
|
subsidize |
providing financial support to someone or something. One example is to subsidize pharmaceuticals so everyone can afford to buy them |
|
sue |
to bring in front of a court, sue, prosecute |
|
supporting capacity |
capacity, durability |
|
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T |
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|
telemedicine |
using telecommunications to transfer medical information, such as X-rays and EKG signals |
|
territorial defence |
defending our national boundaries against other countries |
|
total defence |
all parts of a country's defence, including the military, civil, psychological and financial segments. |
|
totalitarian |
state where one person, a party or an organisation controls all vital parts of the community. Also used for organisation seeking this power. |
|
trade barriers |
all measures that serve as barriers for trade with goods and services in both import and export. |
|
trade liberalisation |
removal of customs duties or other trade barriers
|
|
trade policy |
the position of a government on foreign trade |
|
traffic fee |
road fee on cars in densely populated areas designed to reduce crowding and environmental load |
|
trafficking |
trading in human beings for sexual exploitation |
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transaction expense |
extra expense that arises when complicated contracts must be drawn in such areas as buying and selling, bank and currency fees, or legal fees. |
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transnational |
multi-national, such as when a company is active in several countries |
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treaty |
an agreement between two or more states. See convention. |
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Third Reich |
Nazi Germany (1933-1945) |
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unanimity |
agreement without anyone dissenting |
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unregulated |
lacking all forms of regulation |
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Uppsala school |
a school of Swedish philosopy and jurisprudence initiated by such as Axel Hägerström. It gained influence through its value nihilism. See value nihilism. |
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urbanisation |
migration to cities |
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utilitarianism |
utilitarian morality; a school of philosophy that states action should always be taken that leads to the combined welfare among sentient beings should be as great as possible. Values such as the inviolability of life, justice, equality and freedom have no intrinsic value, being merely means for attaining the greatest possible happiness for the greatest number of individuals. |
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utopia |
a conception about final goals, ideals or dreams that cannot be realized, often about society |
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VAT = Value Added Tax |
indirect tax on consumption of goods and services. Also called moms. |
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VAT rate |
rate for the value added tax. See VAT |
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values displacement |
when ideals and values loose importance or are replaced |
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value solidarity |
community where ideals, values and goals are shared. |
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value nihilism |
philosophic school based on the view that values statements are neither true or false, merely owning emotional meaning. |
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values orientation |
building a society based on how one sees human value, opportunities, needs and purpose. The opposite of system orientation based on trying to make humans fit ready moulds |
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value relativism |
theory that claims that values judgements only have a limited validity, often that they are only valid in a certain context and during a certain time. |
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venture capital |
money someone is willing to invest in a corporate concept whose future is uncertain. Should the idea work, the investor stands to earn much more than for a risk-free investment such as bank savings. |
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vertical division of powers |
the relationship between the various levels of governmental power (state, province, municipality) |
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vocational school |
qualified vocational training at an institution of higher learning |
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warrant of dignity |
the name given by the Christian Democrats to the expanded quality demands the patient or relation should be able to make on the health and medical system. The central parts of the warrant of dignity are derived from the patient’s participation in their own care, personal integrity, respect for the individual, time for being nursed and meeting between people. Should not be mistaken for the care guarantee which only deals with waiting periods and accessibility. |
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welfare system |
collection of laws and ordinances that affect the material welfare of citizens, including financial reimbursements and social security in case of such events as illness and unemployment. |
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white zone |
certain period of life or special environment that ought to be alcohol-free |
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WTO |
World Trade Organization working for free trade |
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Y |
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yield |
the profit from a financial investment |